HomeMy WebLinkAbout15- CPF Associates, Inc. - Bridger Creek Community Vapor Intrusion Human Health Risk Assessment
Bridger Creek Community
Vapor Intrusion Human Health Risk Assessment
Prepared for: City of Bozeman Bozeman, MT
Prepared by:
CPF Associates, Inc.
Takoma Park, MD
March 4, 2015
Contents
Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................... 1
1. Introduction/Problem Formulation ........................................................................................................ 3
2. History and Setting of Facility ............................................................................................................... 5
3. Data Summary and Selection of Chemicals of Potential Concern (COPCs) .......................................... 9
3.1 Data Summary ............................................................................................................................ 10
3.2 Data Evaluation and Selection of COPCs ................................................................................... 11
3.3 Sources of VOCs/COPCs ........................................................................................................... 16
4. Exposure Assessment........................................................................................................................... 18
4.1 Fate and Transport Analysis ....................................................................................................... 18
4.2 Potential Receptors and Exposure Pathways .............................................................................. 22
4.3 Exposure Assumptions................................................................................................................ 22
4.4 Exposure Units and Exposure Point Concentrations .................................................................. 24
5. Toxicity Assessment ............................................................................................................................ 27
5.1 Chronic Chemical Carcinogenicity ............................................................................................. 28
5.2 Chronic Chemical Systemic Toxicity ......................................................................................... 29
5.3. Acute Chemical Toxicity ........................................................................................................... 30
5.4 Radon .......................................................................................................................................... 31
6. Risk Characterization ........................................................................................................................... 31
6.1 Overall Bridger Creek Community Cancer Risk ........................................................................ 31
6.2 Overall Bridger Creek Community Chronic Non-cancer Hazard ............................................... 33
6.3 Overall Bridger Creek Community Acute Non-cancer Hazard .................................................. 35
6.4 Individual Residence Cancer Risk and Non-cancer Hazard ....................................................... 36
6.5 Radon Risks ................................................................................................................................ 38
6.6 Risk Context................................................................................................................................ 39
6.7 Effect of Mitigation Measures .................................................................................................... 41
6.8 Uncertainty Analysis ................................................................................................................... 41
7. Summary and Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 44
8. References ............................................................................................................................................ 45
APPENDIX A –TECHNICAL GLOSSARY
APPENDIX B – DATA WORKSHEETS
APPENDIX C – AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY
Bridger Creek Community
Vapor Intrusion Human Health Risk Assessment
March 4, 2015
Executive Summary
The City of Bozeman operated a sanitary landfill north of the City center from 1970 until 2008. After
the landfill was in operation, two residential developments, known as Bridger Creek Phase 2 and
Bridger Creek Phase 3 (“Bridger Creek Community”) were developed near the landfill. In 2012,
volatile organic compounds were discovered in off-site soil gas (also called soil vapor). Several
investigations have been conducted since the initial discovery including evaluations of volatile organic
compounds in the landfill, soil vapor, groundwater, ambient air and the Bridger Creek Community
residences. The City of Bozeman, acting proactively, installed vapor mitigation systems in the form of
subslab depressurization equipment, in 27 homes to reduce potential vapor exposure while the situation
is being analyzed. Questions have also arisen from members of the public regarding the potential for
health effects and property value impacts from vapor (soil gas) intrusion into residences. Specifically
questions have been raised about whether or not vapor intrusion could cause public health impacts to
current and/or future residents of the Bridger Creek Community.
In order to answer these questions, the City commissioned a human health risk assessment (HHRA)
from CPF Associates, Inc. (“CPF”). CPF is a scientific research and consulting firm that specializes in
environmental impact studies of the management of solid and hazardous waste. The Principal
Investigator is Paul C. Chrostowski, Ph.D., QEP. Dr. Chrostowski has an Honors BS in Chemistry from
the University of California, Berkeley, an MS in Environmental Science obtained through a United
States Public Health Service Traineeship at Drexel University, and a Ph.D. in Environmental
Engineering and Science from Drexel University. In addition, Dr Chrostowski has over 40 years’
experience in risk analysis and environmental forensics. He is a registered Qualified Environmental
Professional (QEP #02970014), the author or co-author of over 130 relevant publications or
presentations and has provided expert services to many local governments, the U.S. federal government
and private parties. This report has also been subject to external scientific peer review by Robert
Scofield, D. Env., M.P.H. Dr. Scofield is Principal Toxicologist and Vice President at GSI
Environmental, Inc.
This risk assessment uses methodologies developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to
answer these questions and to perform an analysis regarding the need for mitigation systems. It is not
intended to fulfill a specific regulatory requirement but rather is intended to inform residents of the
Bridger Creek Community and City officials regarding the consequences of the occurrence of VOCs in
the area. Although not being conducted as part of a regulatory program, the methods used in the risk
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assessment are those typically applied to baseline risk assessments that support decisions regarding the
need for risk management measures and that support risk communication.
The risk assessment was based on hundreds of measurements of volatile organic compounds that have
been made over the past several years. Those chemicals anticipated to present the greatest risk that
could be associated with vapor intrusion from the landfill were identified by a series of statistical and
numerical procedures. This process resulted in benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, 1,2-
dichloroethane, 1,4-dioxane, ethylbenzene, tetrachloroethene, trichloroethene, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene,
and m,p-xylene being identified as chemicals of potential concern in soil gas. All of these chemicals
may have multiple sources in addition to their presence in soil gas. None of the VOCs measured in the
Bridger Creek residences is unique to landfill gas and the methods used to sample and analyze the VOCs
were designed to yield total concentrations rather than concentrations associated with landfill gas only.
The risk assessment discussed numerous additional potential sources of these chemicals and provides
links whereby residents may learn more about exposures to chemicals contained in common household
products.
Health risks for cancer, chronic non-cancer systemic effects, and acute non-cancer effects associated
with vapor intrusion were determined for the chemicals of potential concern before mitigation was
implemented using standard methods established by the Environmental Protection Agency. In all
instances where there was a choice, conservative (health protective) options were used. Two exposure
scenarios -- a reasonable maximum exposure and an average or central tendency exposure -- were
evaluated for the Bridger Creek community as a whole.
The results of the risk assessment are summarized below1:
Health Effect Reasonable Maximum Exposure
Average Exposure EPA Criterion DEQ Criterion
Cancer Risk 4E-06
(4 in 1,000,000)
3E-07
(3 in 10,000,000)
1E-06 to 1E-04 (1 in 1,000,000
to 1 in 10,000)
1E-05
(1 in 100,000)
Chronic Non-cancer Hazard Index 0.3 0.04 1.0 1.0
Acute Hazard Index 0.003 Not applicable 1.0 No criterion
In addition, reasonable maximum exposure cancer risks and chronic non-cancer hazard indices were
calculated for each individual residence in the Bridger Creek Community. These calculations were
performed for a hypothetical individual who was assumed to reside at a single residence for 26 years,
and be inside the home for 24 hours per day and for 350 days per year. The cancer risks ranged from
5E-07 (5 in 10,000,000) to 1E-05 (1 in 100,000) and the non-cancer hazard indices ranged from 0.03 to
0.8.
1 Technical terms used in this report will be defined in Appendix A and discussed further in the text.
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Cancer Risks refer to the probability that an individual could contract cancer under the conditions of
chemical exposure discussed in the assessment. The cancer risk values that were calculated for the
Bridger Creek community ranged from 3 in 10,000,000 to 4 in 1,000,000 and the cancer risks for
individual residences ranged from 5 in 10,000,000 to 1 in 100,000. These may be compared to the
Environmental Protection Agency’s risk range of 1 in 1,000,000 to 1 in 10,000 and the Montana
Department of Environmental Quality’s risk criterion of 1 in 100,000. Non-cancer hazards refer to the
possibility that a health effect could occur due to either long-term (chronic) or short-term (acute)
exposure to a chemical. Hazard index values less than “1” suggest that non-cancer effects are not likely
to occur. Chronic non-cancer systemic hazard index values ranged from 0.04 to 0.3 for the Bridger
Creek community and from 0.08 to 0.8 for the individual residences. The acute hazard index was 0.003.
These hazard indices may be compared to the regulatory criterion of 1. In each case, the potential risks
associated with vapor intrusion into the Bridger Creek residences are below the regulatory criteria. In
addition, these risks are well below those associated with potentially hazardous activities undertaken by
people in everyday life.
It may be concluded that the potential health risks to the Bridger Creek Community associated with
subslab volatile organic chemicals prior to mitigation are within acceptable risk ranges established by
the Environmental Protection Agency and the Montana Department of Environmental Quality under the
conditions of exposure used in this risk assessment. Further it was shown that the risks are substantially
lower than those associated with everyday life. The primary reason for these low risks is the fact that
the chemicals of concern are generally present at very low concentrations. Overall, using Environmental
Protection Agency methods, the potential risks posed by intrusion of subslab soil gas to the community
meet generally accepted public health regulatory guidelines. In essence, the baseline risk assessment
suggests that the installation of mitigation systems, while a prudent public health implementation of the
precautionary principle, was not necessary to meet regulatory risk guidelines.
As a consequence of the installation of mitigation systems, radon measurements were obtained from
residences in Bridger Creek Phase 3. These measurements revealed the presence of naturally occurring
radon at levels exceeding the Environmental Protection Agency’s action level for radon. The cancer
risks associated with unmitigated radon in these residences exceeds the potential risks associated with
chemical exposure by many orders of magnitude. Overall, installation of the mitigation systems reduced
the radon levels to below the Environmental Protection Agency’s criterion and reduced the cancer risk
by approximately a factor of 10.
1. Introduction/Problem Formulation
The City of Bozeman (“City”) operated a sanitary landfill under a Montana Department of Quality
(MDEQ) permit from 1970 until 2008. After the landfill began operation, two residential developments,
known as the Bridger Creek Phase 2 and Phase 3 subdivisions, were developed near the landfill. In
2012, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were discovered in off-site soil gas. Several investigations
have been conducted since the initial discovery including evaluations of VOCs in the landfill, soil vapor,
groundwater, ambient air and the Bridger Creek residences. Mitigation systems have been installed in
many homes and monitoring and other activities are continuing. Documents related to the vapor
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intrusion studies and mitigation may be found at
http://www.bozeman.net/Projects/BozemanLandfillSoilGasStudy/Home.aspx
In order to answer questions from the public regarding potential health effects associated with
components of the soil gas, the City commissioned a human health risk assessment (HHRA) from CPF
Associates, Inc. (“CPF”). CPF is a scientific research and consulting firm located near Washington DC
that specializes in environmental impact studies of the management of solid and hazardous waste. In
addition to risk assessments, CPF conducts epidemiology and community health studies, biomonitoring
studies, life cycle analyses and related projects. The Principal Investigator is Paul C. Chrostowski,
Ph.D., QEP. Dr. Chrostowski has an Honors BS in Chemistry from the University of California,
Berkeley, an MS in Environmental Science obtained through a United States Public Health Service
Traineeship at Drexel University, and a Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering and Science from Drexel
University. In addition, Dr Chrostowski has over 40 years’ experience in risk analysis and
environmental forensics. He is a registered Qualified Environmental Professional (QEP #02970014),
the author or co-author of over 130 relevant publications or presentations and has provided expert
services to many local governments, the U.S. federal government and private parties. Dr. Chrostowski’s
professional biography is attached to this report as Appendix C. This report has also been subject to
external scientific peer review by Robert Scofield, D. Env., M.P.H. Dr. Scofield is Principal
Toxicologist and Vice President at GSI Environmental, Inc. All comments received from Dr. Scofield
have been incorporated into the analysis and are reflected in this report.
Risk assessment is a scientific practice that has been developed to characterize the probability and
magnitude of health impacts associated with exposure to chemicals. The principles of risk assessment
were originally detailed in 1983 by the National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council
(NAS/NRC). Since that time, detailed guidelines for the performance of risk assessments have been
published by EPA and others. Many of these guidelines have been published by EPA’s Superfund
program which requires risk assessments to determine human health protection. This risk assessment is
intended to be consistent with EPA and related federal guidelines.
This risk assessment follows United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Agency for
Toxic Substances Disease Registry (ATSDR) guidance as supplemented by MDEQ guidance. Pertinent
guidance documents include:
• National Academy of Sciences 1983. Risk Assessment in the Federal Government: Managing
the Process.
• ATSDR 2001 Landfill Gas Primer.
• ATSDR 2008. Evaluating Vapor Intrusion Pathways at Hazardous Waste Sites.
• EPA 1992c. Guidelines for Exposure Assessment. EPA/600/Z-92/001.
• EPA 2005. Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment. EPA/630/P-03/001F
• EPA 2009. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Volume I: Part F. Supplemental Guidance
for Inhalation Risk Assessment. EPA-540-R-070-002.
• EPA 1989. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund Volume I Part A. EPA/540/1-89/002.
• EPA 2001. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Volume I. Part D. Standardized Planning,
Reporting, and Review of Superfund Risk Assessments.
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• EPA 1992a. Guidance for Data Usability in Risk Assessment. OSWER Publication 9285.7-
09A.
In addition, the scientific and regulatory literature on the behavior and effects of VOCs in the
environment has also been consulted where appropriate. Other relevant documents will be cited
throughout this report; complete references may be found in Section 8.
This risk assessment is specifically designed to answer questions about current and future health risk for
residences in the Bridger Creek subdivisions and surrounding areas when viewed as a community.
Although it includes calculations of risks potentially associated with exposure of a hypothetical
individual to VOCs in individual residences, these calculations should not be interpreted to reflect actual
individual exposures of occupants of these residents. It is not intended to address questions regarding the
risks of particular occupants of these residences. There are several reasons why this assessment focuses
on the community, residences, and hypothetical receptors rather than actual individuals. First, this is a
public document. Risk assessments focusing on individuals require a substantial amount of information
regarding someone’s personal life including physiological characteristics and behavior patterns (for
example, tobacco and alcohol use). If a risk assessment were to be performed on individuals, obtaining
and publishing this information could be regarded as an invasion of privacy. Second, this risk
assessment is intended to cover both present and future potential exposures. This includes people
wishing to relocate to or build in the Bridger Creek Community as well as people wishing to refinance
mortgages or engage in other real estate transactions. Relying on existing indoor air measurements alone
will not allow for calculation of potential future risks due to variability in indoor air concentrations when
compared to subslab soil gas. Third, this risk assessment is designed to be biased toward health
protectiveness. This practice, while standard in risk assessment, overestimates exposures and the
potential for health effects by using conservative default assumptions regarding human behavior. Risk
assessments for real individuals are normally much less conservative than those performed using EPA
guidelines.
This HHRA is not intended to fulfill a specific regulatory requirement but rather is intended to inform
residents of the Bridger Creek Community and City officials regarding the consequences of the
occurrence of VOCs in the area. Although not being conducted as part of a regulatory program, the
methods used in the risk assessment are those typically applied to baseline risk assessments that support
decisions regarding the need for risk management measures and that support risk communication.
This HHRA opens with a description of the landfill and its setting. It then moves on to the traditional
risk assessment components of data evaluation, exposure assessment, toxicity assessment and risk
characterization. This is followed by a discussion of the results that interprets the calculated risks and
puts them into context with regulatory public health guidelines and risks associated with events in
everyday life.
2. History and Setting of Facility
The City operated a sanitary landfill under an MDEQ permit from 1970 until 2008. The landfill is
situated on a 200 acre tract between Story Mill Road and McIlhattan Road approximately 2 miles
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northeast of downtown Bozeman (Figure 1). The majority of waste disposed of at the landfill has been
defined as Class II including food, paper, cardboard, cloth, glass, metal and plastics. Until 1995, waste
was disposed of in an unlined cell in the southeastern portion of the property. This cell is approximately
32 acres in extent and contains waste up to 100 feet in thickness. From 1995 through 2008 disposal was
conducted in a second cell. This cell is equipped with an impermeable liner and a leachate collection
system. Leachate from this cell is disposed of and treated in the municipal waste water system. The
lined cell is approximately 12 acres in extent and contains waste up to 100 feet in thickness. In addition
to these two cells, there is a Class IV cell in the northwest corner of the property that covers about 3
acres. This cell accepted construction and demolition (C&D) waste in the past and currently has limited
activity for handling C&D waste. This type of waste is not usually associated with the chemicals that
may cause vapor intrusion. Besides the landfilling, the City operates a yard waste composting operation
on the site. Neither the Class IV cell nor the composting operation will be addressed in the risk
assessment. Additional information regarding the landfill is available in Maxim (1995) and TetraTech
(2007, 2014).
A groundwater monitoring program has been in operation at the landfill since 1981. In 1995, a
corrective measures assessment (CMA) was performed for the landfill (Maxim 1995) that evaluated the
nature and extent of contamination of groundwater and landfill gas and recommended mitigation
measures. As a result, a landfill gas extraction system was installed in the unlined closed cell in 1997.
This system consists of 19 landfill gas extraction wells which collect methane gas along with
approximately 1,100 pounds of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) per year which are thermally treated
using a candlestick flare located on the north side of the unlined closed cell. This system is operated
6
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under an MDEQ permit. The performance of the landfill gas extraction system was evaluated in 2007
(TetraTech 2007) and engineering modifications were made to the existing system. Due to occurrences
of VOCs in groundwater, a second CMA was completed in 2014 which summarizes investigations and
remedial actions to date (TetraTech 2014). The original reports and permits (MDEQ 2007) may be
consulted for additional details on the landfill gas extraction and treatment system.
The landfill property lies on the southwest flank of the Bridger Mountains, immediately upslope of the
East Gallatin River floodplain. The location of the landfill is shown on Figure 1. The land closest to the
landfill in the west, north, and east directions is relatively undeveloped. This land is largely outside the
Bozeman City limits and in unincorporated Gallatin County. The landfill property itself is zoned “PLI”
or public lands/institutional. Development in the area of the landfill started in about 1994. This area is
zoned “R-3”, residential medium density or “R-S”, residential suburban. The Bridger Creek residential
developments are located to the south. These developments consist of approximately 75 single-family
residences located on Augusta Drive, St. Andrews Drive, Turnberry Court, McIlhattan Road, Caddie
Court, and Story Mill Road. There were three phases of development in Bridger Creek, two of which are
relevant to this investigation2. Bridger Creek Subdivision Phase 2 was platted in 1997 and consists of
lots along Augusta Drive and McIlhattan Road. Bridger Creek Subdivison Phase 3 was platted in 2000
and consists of lots along St Andrews Drive, Turnberry Court, and Caddie Court. Collectively these
developments will be referred to as the Bridger Creek Community. The residences in this area are
served with municipal water and sewage, although a few water supply wells exist for irrigation. Further
to the south and west is the City Center of Bozeman; for perspective, W. Main Street, Bozeman lies
about 2 ¼ miles due south of the center of Bridger Creek Phase 2.
VOCs in off-site soil gas were discovered in late 2012. Soil gas samples were initially analyzed for 62
VOCs and chloroform, benzene, trichloroethene3, tetrachloroethene, ethylbenzene, and 1,2,4-
trimethylbenzene were detected above EPA residential indoor air regional screening levels (RSLs).
RSLs are not intended to identify the potential for public health effects. Rather they are indicators that
further action may be needed. In this case, that action was expressed as additional monitoring, the
installation of soil gas mitigation systems, and performance of this HHRA. Several investigations have
occurred since the initial discovery including investigation of the landfill, soil vapor, groundwater,
ambient air, and the Bridger Creek residences. Indoor air and subslab soil gas monitoring were
conducted in all residences along St. Andrews Drive, Turnberry Court, and Caddie Court in the Bridger
Creek Phase 3 Subdivision in addition to four homes on Augusta Drive in the Bridger Creek Phase 2
subdivision. Overall, 37 VOCs have been detected in subslab soil gas and 35 VOCs have been detected
in indoor air. Of the detected VOCs, 30% are associated with petroleum products, particularly gasoline
and diesel or heating fuel. In addition to indoor air, the City has performed ambient outdoor air
monitoring in the residential area and administered a questionnaire to homeowners regarding factors that
could be relevant to chemical exposure. These investigations have revealed the presence of VOCs in
indoor air and subslab soil gas which are the focus of this risk assessment. As of this writing, mitigation
systems have been installed in many homes, monitoring is continuing, and the City of Bozeman is in the
2 Bridger Creek Subdivision Phase 1 lies to the south of Bridger Creek and is considered to be outside the area of potential impact. 3 Trichloroethene is also referred to as trichloroethylene. Tetrachloroethene is also referred to as tetrachloroethylene or
perchloroethylene.
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process of developing a landfill remediation system. Additional information regarding the vapor
intrusion studies may be found in the 2014 CMA and at
http://www.bozeman.net/Projects/BozemanLandfillSoilGasStudy/Home.aspx
3. Data Summary and Selection of Chemicals of Potential Concern (COPCs)
VOCs are a group or family of numerous chemicals characterized by their properties. In general, they
have high vapor pressures and low boiling points which causes them to evaporate from a liquid or solid
phase. They are also considered to be ubiquitous, meaning that they occur almost universally in the
environment. VOCs may be naturally occurring or human made (anthropogenic). Naturally occurring
VOCs, such as terpenes, play important roles in communications between plants and messages from
plants to animals. For example, the VOC amyl acetate is emitted by bananas to signal that they are ripe.
Some VOCs are considered to be toxic to humans and the natural environment. Many of these are the
anthropogenic VOCs which are regulated by various federal and state agencies. Many VOCs occur as
mixtures. For example, petroleum products such as gasoline, kerosene, and diesel may contain hundreds
of VOCs.
At the Bridger Creek Community, outdoor air, indoor air, crawl space, and subslab soil gas samples
were analyzed for over 60 VOCs – in most cases, these are anthropogenic VOCs that have been found in
studies elsewhere to be associated with municipal solid waste landfills. Many of these chemicals were
not detected, were detected only infrequently, or were detected indoors at levels significantly higher than
in soil gas. Subsequent to these occurrences, mitigation systems were installed in 27 residences in
Bridger Creek Phase 3 (see Section 6.5 for details).
When conducting a risk assessment, it is standard practice to focus on those chemicals of greatest
potential concern to human health and eliminate chemicals that are not of consequence to the risk
assessment using a screening process (EPA 1991b, EPA 1996). The chemicals that remain after this
process are called chemicals of potential concern or COPCs. These COPCs are then subject to a
complete risk assessment as defined by EPA. If the risk assessment shows that particular chemicals
exceed risk criteria, they are termed chemicals of concern or COCs. Remedial measures are then
developed for the COCs to eliminate the concern.
The chemical analytical data used in this risk assessment were obtained from samples collected by
TetraTech under contract to the City of Bozeman. Sampling methods and data management were
generally consistent with EPA and MDEQ methodologies. VOCs were analyzed using EPA Method
TO-15 by two independent laboratories -- Eurofins Air Toxics, Inc., Folsom California and AccuStar,
Medford, MA. Eurofins maintains an accredited lab and participates in EPA’s performance evaluation
program as well as several state and federal certifications, validations and approvals. The method used,
EPA’s TO-15 (EPA 1999), was developed to evaluate chemicals regulated under the Clean Air Act. It
involves collecting air samples (from soil gas or ambient air) in canisters and transporting them to the
laboratory where they are analyzed by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry. In addition to the air
samples, field duplicates, blanks, surrogate recoveries, laboratory control samples and laboratory control
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sample duplicates were analyzed. Data were validated4 by TetraTech using EPA National Functional
Guidelines and qualified as appropriate. For this risk assessment, validation reports contained in a pdf
file (“Data Validation Reports” dated February 7, 20145) were received from TetraTech and reviewed
for data usability. All data not qualified “R” (rejected) were reviewed and considered suitable for use in
the risk assessment.
3.1 Data Summary
The VOC data used in this risk assessment were received from TetraTech on May 8, 2014 in the form of
an MS Excel spreadsheet labeled “Risk Analysis Database”. In addition, letters sent to residents
reporting analytical results, and a homeowner mitigation schedule, were used to provide context and
additional background on sampling locations and sampling schedules. Letters were contained in several
pdf files received from TetraTech in February and March 2014 including:
• Initial indoor air letters
• Phase II letters
• Post mitigation letters
• Subslab letters
Post-mitigation letters and data were used for context only and were not included in the HHRA. The
reason for this was to be able to calculate risks for the baseline situation prior to mitigation (the effects
of mitigation are discussed later in this document). The mitigation schedule was included in an Excel
file received in March 2014 which presented mitigation status as of January 29, 2014, although
mitigation data as late as April 2014 were also reviewed. Finally, recourse was made to presentations
given at various public meetings in 2013 and 2014.
The data reported in these documents and used in the risk assessment is in the form of mass
concentrations or number of micrograms (µg) of chemical per cubic meter (m3) of air. Some toxicity
data referenced below is reported in units of mg/m3 which is a factor of 1,000 higher than µg/m3 (i.e., 1
mg/m3 = 1,000 µg/m3). Other sources that may be consulted by readers of this document may report
volume concentrations or volume of contaminant per volume of air with typical units of parts-per-billion
(ppb) or parts-per million (ppm). These two systems of reporting are not interchangeable and the reader
should use caution when comparing results reported using the different systems. Radon results are
reported in terms of pico-Curies of radon activity per liter (pCi/L) of air. This is a measurement of the
radioactivity of the radon rather than its mass.
Many of the Bridger Creek Community homes have crawl spaces that were sampled as part of site
investigations. After careful examination, it was decided not to include these data in the HHRA for a variety
of reasons. Crawl spaces may influence the degree of interaction between subslab and indoor air and are not
considered to be representative of subslab soil gas. The two most important factors that determine the degree
of influence are: 1) whether the crawl space is vented and, if so, the degree of ventilation; and 2) the presence
and condition of any water vapor barrier between the lowest floor of the building and the crawl space (EPA
4 Validation is a process in which laboratory reports are inspected by an independent analyst to determine if the analyses are consistent with EPA requirements.
5 These reports reflected Eurofins analyses only.
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2012). Other variable factors include construction details, pest control practices, spills of materials, and
degree of use of the crawl space. These are not known in the case of the Bridger Creek Community
residences. Further, people may use crawl spaces as storage and they may contain sources of VOCs such as
paint, solvents, cleaners or related materials. Some incidences of this were noted during field investigations
at the Bridger Creek community residences. Without detailed knowledge of all of these factors and
elimination of any alternative VOC sources from the crawl spaces, reliable interpretation of crawl space
measurements would not be possible. Due to this, this risk assessment relies on subslab data which the
literature maintains is more accurate.
3.2 Data Evaluation and Selection of COPCs
The data in the excel file were evaluated in a series of steps to identify chemicals of potential concern
(COPCs) consistent with MDEQ recommendations (MDEQ 2011). The chemical-specific sampling
results were transposed (from the original form of chemicals by column and samples by row, to
chemicals by row and samples by column), and compiled so that each individual column reflected one
individual sample from one house with a unique sampling date. Quantitative concentrations were not
provided by TetraTech for those samples flagged with an ND6, reflecting a result that was presumably
less than the detection or reporting limit. In these cases, TetraTech left the sample concentration cell in
the excel file blank. For the purposes of selecting COPCs, only detectable concentrations with values
reported by TetraTech were considered. Accordingly, rows with sample quality flags, sample reporting
limits and reporting limit flag information were not needed and were removed from the compiled
dataset, leaving only the concentration results for each compound. Rows containing other information
not needed for the selection of COPCs were also removed (e.g., lab number and name, matrix, sampling
time, lab date, dilution, etc.) Sample columns not needed for the selection of COPCs were also
removed for ease of data handling (e.g., samples collected in 2014 or post-mitigation, ambient air
samples, samples LFI-1 and LFI-2 which were collected from the landfill, and crawl space samples).
The sampling information retained at this point for the selection of COPCs included: field sample
number, house number, unique ID, sample type (i.e., indoor air, subslab), duplicate, sample description
(i.e., sampling location in house such as bedroom, living room, etc.) and sampling date.
Sampling locations for data relied upon in the risk assessment are shown in Figure 2. These sample
locations were identified by TetraTech using alphanumeric designations: AI represents Augusta Drive
which comprises Bridger Creek Phase 2. SAI and TI represent St. Andrews Drive and Turnberry Court,
respectively, which along with CI representing Caddie Court and SMI representing Storymill Road
comprise Bridger Creek Phase 3. MI represents McIlhattan Road.
6 ND represents a chemical that may be present but at a level less than that reliably determined by the analytical method.
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The COPC selection process relied on a sequential comparison, first of indoor air concentrations to risk-
based regional residential screening levels (RSLs) for the inhalation pathway of exposure and, after this,
of indoor air concentrations to subslab concentrations. RSLs were developed by EPA specifically to
perform preliminary screening of chemical concentrations at a site. The fact that RSLs may be exceeded
does not mean that there is a health risk, but usually means that further evaluation of potential risks is
appropriate. The RSLs used in this HHRA were obtained from residential air screening levels provided
by EPA in the table "Regional Screening Level (RSL) Resident Air Supporting Table (TR=1E-6,
HQ=0.1) May 2014”. 7 All non-cancer and cancer risk RSLs were compiled from this table for each
compound included in TetraTech’s excel data file. The RSLs for trans- and cis-1,2-dichloroethene were
obtained from the International Toxicity Estimates for Risk (ITER) database8 because values were not
7 RSL source: http://www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/risk/human/rb-concentration_table/Generic_Tables/ docs/ resair_sl_table_01run_MAY2014.pdf. Table date May 2014.
8 Source: https://iter.ctc.com/publicURL/pub_view_list.cfm?crn=156%2D59%2D2
12
available in EPA’s RSL table. The non-cancer RSLs were based on a target hazard quotient (HQ) of
0.1. This is 10 times lower (i.e., more health-protective) than the criterion typically used to evaluate
HHRA results. The cancer-based RSLs were based on a target excess lifetime cancer risk of one in one
million (1 in 1,000,000 or 1E-6). If RSL air concentration values were available for both endpoints
(non-cancer and cancer), the lowest one was used in the COPC screening. Table 1 presents the RSLs
and other toxicity criteria for the compounds.
The two COPC screening steps were based on a simplified version of Montana’s decision-making
process for evaluating sample data as described in its 2011 Vapor Intrusion Guide as well as discussions
with Aimee Reynolds, Risk Assessor and Quality Coordinator at MDEQ. Specifically, the following
two comparisons were performed:
1) The maximum indoor air concentration (Max IA) reported at each house was compared to the
RSL. Sample data considered in this step included all indoor air living space samples (except
those from crawl spaces) with detectable concentrations that were collected in 2013 before
mitigation.
2) If the maximum indoor air concentration was above the RSL (i.e., max IA > RSL), a second
screening step was conducted in which the maximum subslab concentration (Max SS) was
compared to the maximum indoor air concentration. Sample data considered in this step
included all subslab samples with detectable concentrations that were collected in 2013 before
mitigation.
The results of the screening are shown in Table 2. Sample results for a total of 38 compounds available
from 31 houses were included in the COPC selection process. The maximum indoor air concentration
was found to be above the RSL at 17 houses and, among these, 10 also had maximum subslab
concentrations greater than maximum indoor concentrations. As described earlier, exceeding an RSL
does not necessarily mean that there is a health risk but it does indicate that further evaluation is
appropriate.
This process yielded 10 COPCs including BTEX compounds9 (1, 2, 4-trimethylbenzene, benzene,
ethylbenzene, m,p-xylene), chlorinated solvents (1,2-dichloroethane, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform,
tetrachloroethene, trichloroethene), and 1,4-dioxane. The worksheets used in this selection process may
be found in Appendix B. The COPCs developed in this process were subsequently used as the basis of
the remainder of the risk assessment. It should be kept in mind that these are COPCs for the subslab soil
gas contribution to indoor air, not indoor air itself which is subject to many other sources of VOCs.
9 The term “BTEX” specifically standing for Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, and Xylenes is used more generally in this
report to represent all monoaromatic hydrocarbons derived from petroleum.
13
Table 1 Risk Screening Levels (RSLs) and Toxicity Values
Compound CAS #
Inhalation Unit Risk (IUR) (µg/m3)-1 (d)
Inhalation Reference Concentration (RfC) (mg/m3) (d)
Cancer screening level (CSL) (ug/m3) (a)
Noncancer screening level (NCSL) (µg/m3) (a, b)
RSL (lowest of CSL and NCSL)
1,1,1-trichloroethane 71-55-6 5 520 520
1,1-dichloroethane 75-34-3 1.60E-06 1.8 1.8
1,2,4-trimethylbenzene 95-63-6 7.0E-03 0.73 0.73
1,2-dichloroethane 107-06-2 2.60E-05 7.0E-03 0.11 0.73 0.11
1,4-dioxane 123-91-1 5.00E-06 3.0E-02 0.56 3.1 0.56
2-butanone (MEK) 78-93-3 5 520 520
2-hexanone 591-78-6 3.0E-02 3.1 3.1
2-propanol 67-63-0 7 730 730
4-methyl-2-pentanone 108-10-1 3 310 310
Acetone 67-64-1 31 3,200 3,200
Benzene 71-43-2 7.80E-06 3.0E-02 0.36 3.1 0.36
Bromomethane 74-83-9 5.0E-03 0.52 0.52
Carbon disulfide 75-15-0 0.7 73 73
Carbon tetrachloride 56-23-5 6.60E-06 1.0E-01 0.47 10 0.47
Chlorobenzene 108-90-7 5.0E-02 5.2 5.2
Chloroethane 75-00-3 10 1,000 1,000
Chloroform 67-66-3 2.30E-05 9.8E-02 0.12 10 0.12
Chloromethane 74-87-3 9.0E-02 9.4 9.4
Cis-1,2-dichloroethene (c) 156-59-2 6.0E-02 6.3 6.3
Cumene 98-82-8 0.4 42 42
Cyclohexane 110-82-7 6 630 630
Ethyl benzene 100-41-4 2.50E-06 1 1.1 100 1.1
Freon 11 75-69-4 0.7 73 73
Freon 113 76-13-1 30 3,100 3,100
Freon 12 75-71-8 0.1 10 10
Hexane 110-54-3 0.7 73 73
m,p-Xylene 108-38-3/106-42-3 0.1 10 10
Methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE) 1634-04-4 2.60E-07 3 11 310 11
Methylene chloride 75-09-2 1.00E-08 0.6 100 63 63
o-xylene 95-47-6 0.1 10 10
Propyl benzene 103-65-1 1 100 100
Styrene 100-42-5 1 100 100
Tetrachloroethene 127-18-4 2.60E-07 4.0E-02 11 4.2 4.2
Tetrahydrofuran 109-99-9 2 210 210
Toluene 108-88-3 5 520 520
trans-1,2-dichloroethene (c) 156-60-5 6.0E-02 6.3 6.3
Trichloroethene 79-01-6 4.10E-06 2.0E-03 0.48 0.21 0.21
Vinyl chloride 75-01-4 4.40E-06 0.1 0.17 10 0.17
(a) Risk screening levels (RSLs) obtained from residential air screening levels provided by EPA in the table "Regional Screening Level (RSL) Resident Air Supporting Table (TR=1E-6, HQ=0.1) May 2014". http://www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/risk/human/rb-concentration_table/Generic_Tables/docs/resair_sl_table_01run_MAY2014.pdf. (b) NCSL based on the HQ=0.1 values in EPA's RSL table. (c) Noncancer screening levels for trans- and cis-1,2-dichloroethene obtained from RIVM Provisional tolerable air concentration (https://iter.ctc.com/publicURL/pub_view_list.cfm?crn=156%2D59%2D2) (d) These terms will be discussed in greater detail in Section 5.
14
Table 2 Data Screening for Selection of Compounds of Potential Concern (COPC) (a)
Compound Total number of houses tested
Houses meeting first test (Max IA>RSL)(b)
Houses meeting second test (Max SS>Max IA)(c)
COPC
111Trichloroethane 31 0 0 N
11Dichloroethane 31 0 0 N
124Trimethylbenzene 31 29 17 Y
12Dichloroethane 31 26 1 Y
14Dioxane 31 14 2 Y
2Butanone 31 0 0 N
2Hexanone 31 0 0 N
2Propanol 31 1 0 N
4Methyl2pentanone 31 0 0 N
Acetone 31 0 0 N
Benzene 31 28 15 Y
Bromomethane 31 0 0 N
CarbonDisulfide 31 0 0 N
CarbonTetrachloride 31 20 1 Y
Chlorobenzene 31 0 0 N
Chloroethane 31 0 0 N
Chloroform 31 24 9 Y
Chloromethane 31 1 0 N
cis12Dichloroethene 31 0 0 N
Cumene 31 0 0 N
Cyclohexane 31 0 0 N
Ethylbenzene 31 22 11 Y
Freon11 31 0 0 N
Freon113 31 0 0 N
Freon12 31 2 0 N
Hexane 31 2 0 N
MethyleneChloride 31 0 0 N
MethylTertButylEther 31 0 0 N
MpXylene 31 9 3 Y
OXylene 31 5 0 N
Propylbenzene 31 0 0 N
Styrene 31 0 0 N
Tetrachloroethene 31 3 2 Y
Tetrahydrofuran 31 0 0 N
Toluene 31 0 0 N
trans12Dichloroethene 31 1 0 N
Trichloroethene 31 7 3 Y
VinylChloride 31 1 0 N
Total # Compounds -- 17 10 10
(a) Sample data considered in the screening included all subslab samples and all indoor air samples (except those from crawl
spaces) with detectable concentrations that were collected in 2013 before mitigation. Data were received from TetraTech on May
8, 2014 in the form of an MS Excel spreadsheet labeled "Risk Analysis Database". See Appendix B for details.
(b) First test: Is the maximum indoor air concentration (Max IA) greater than the risk screening level (RSL)? (c) Second test: Only performed if first test condition was met (i.e., Max IA > RSL). If Max IA > RSL, is the maximum subslab
concentration (Max SS) > Max IA??
15
3.3 Sources of VOCs/COPCs
None of the COPCs are unique to MSW landfills and the COPC selection process should not be
construed to represent source identification. The BTEX compounds, including those measured at
levels too low to be designated as COPCs (for example, toluene, hexane, cumene), are most
commonly associated with petroleum fuels, especially gasoline, kerosene, and other light fuels.
In addition to the fuels themselves, they may also be found in vehicle exhaust. Many of them are
also found in paints, coatings and solvents such as mineral spirits. The BTEX compounds are
also common constituents of tobacco smoke. The chlorinated solvents are typically associated
with a variety of activities including dry cleaning, swimming pool maintenance, household
cleaners, machine shops, and water disinfection. 1,4-dioxane has been used as a preservative for
chlorinated solvents in applications ranging from dry cleaning to septic tank maintenance to
machine shop operations and is a common constituent of household detergents (Tanabe &
Kawata 2008, Huff 2010). Although 1,4-dioxane survived the COPC designation process, it was
not detected in an analysis of landfill gas taken at the entrance to the gas flare at the landfill in
December 2013. Since concentrations at the inlet pipe to the flare reflect levels present within the
body of the landfill which are expected to be much higher than levels that could occur beyond
the landfill boundary, this indicates that 1,4-dioxane may have another source. Chloroform is a
water disinfection byproduct that is found at trace levels in Bozeman municipal drinking water in
addition to being a common constituent of water that has been treated with household bleach,
swimming pool water, and hot tub/spa water. Many potential indoor VOC sources were
identified in field surveys conducted by TetraTech during air quality sampling. No attempt was
made to quantify these sources or remove them prior to sampling, thus, they may have
contributed to the VOC concentrations measured in indoor air. Three of the COPCs – 1,4-
dioxane, chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride – were not detected in recent analyses of VOCs at
the inlet pipe to the landfill flare (AtmAAInc 2013, eurofins 2014) and thus may not originate
from the landfill. By focusing on soil gas measurements, this assessment is designed to separate
the effects of vapor intrusion from soil from other sources. However, it should be recognized
that the only way other potential contributing sources can be eliminated is to identify and remove
them prior to sampling.
In addition to indoor sources, there are numerous outdoor sources of BTEX compounds in the
vicinity according to EPA’s Envirofacts database and a Google Earth search. BTEX compounds
are characteristic of gasoline and related petroleum products and are common in gas stations,
garages, machine shops, etc. Prominent among the potential nearby sources are two large
petroleum bulk storage terminals located approximately 1 mile from the Bridger Creek
developments in addition to a petroleum distribution facility located less than 1 mile from
Bridger Creek, roads including an interstate highway, and the Bozeman Industrial Park.
Although air emissions from the petroleum bulk facilities are regulated by the MDEQ under
permit, this regulation does not entirely preclude fugitive emissions of BTEX. One of these
facilities has also been the subject of two leaky underground storage incidents within the past 16
years which resulted in the release of petroleum to the environment. Finally, historical evidence
suggests the presence of a rail spur in the vicinity of what is now Bridger Creek Phase 2.
Railroad operations are often associated with contamination by benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene,
16
trichloroethene, xylenes and related materials such as fuel, heating oil, paint removers, and
solvents (Shineldecker 1992).
All of the selected COPCs, and most of the VOCs that were measured at concentrations too low
to be selected, have been reported in surveys of indoor air (MDEQ 2012, EPA 2011a, Hodgson
& Levin 2003) at concentrations consistent with those found in the Bridger Creek homes as
shown in Table 3, below:
Table 3
Typical Indoor Air Concentrations of COPCs (µg/m3)
COPC EPA 50%-tile MDEQ 50%-tile Hodgson & Levin GM/median Benzene <0.05-4.7 0.9 2.8
Carbon tetrachloride <0.15-0.68 <0.85 0.58
Chloroform <0.02-2.4 <0.93 0.94 1,2-dichloroethane <0.08-<2.0 0.04
1,4-Dioxane <0.83 0.11
Ethylbenzene 1-3.7 0.78 2.3
Tetrachloroethene <0.03-2.2 0.099 1.0
Trichloroethene <0.02-1.1 <0.048 0.44
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 3.9
m,p-Xylene 1.5-14 2.7 6.2
The term “50%-tile” represents the 50th percentile of the data reported by either EPA or MDEQ.
Hodgson & Levin reported a geometric mean (GM) or median which are functionally equivalent
to the 50%-tile in this case. The “less than” sign (<) designates concentrations that may be
present at levels lower than the analytical detection limits. These data are not directly
comparable numerically either to each other or to indoor air data obtained from residences in the
Bridger Creek subdivisions for a variety of reasons including different sampling and analytical
techniques. In addition, the number of data points in the EPA and Hodgson & Levin reports is
much larger and covers a longer time period than that in the MDEQ report. Houses with tobacco
smokers will typically have higher concentrations than those values reported here. These values,
however, can be used as an indicator of the prevalence of low levels of the COPCs in indoor air
regardless of source and demonstrate the ubiquity of these compounds in U.S. residences.
Radon was found in the indoor air of many of the residences sampled at concentrations ranging
from 0.5 pCi/L to 34 pCi/L. Many of these concentrations exceed the current EPA guideline of 4
pCi/L and are likely to be associated with cancer risks orders of magnitude in excess of those
associated with the COPCs10. A risk assessment for radon is conducted using slightly different
10 http://www.epa.gov/radon/pubs/citguide.html
17
methodology than that for chemicals, thus, this assessment was performed separately and
discussed in context with the chemical risk assessment in the risk characterization section.
4. Exposure Assessment
EPA defines exposure as contact between a chemical substance and the exterior of a person. A
health effect cannot occur in the absence of exposure. Exposure assessment is the process of
measuring or estimating the magnitude, duration, and frequency of human exposure to a
chemical substance in the environment11. This is a highly significant step in a risk assessment
because the potential for a health effect is directly related to the amount of exposure which is
based on the magnitude, frequency, and duration of contact. Exposure assessment has several
components that will be discussed in the remainder of this section.
4.1 Fate and Transport Analysis
Fate and transport analysis describes the environmental behavior of chemicals following their
release. In general terms, chemical fate describes chemical processes such as biodegradation
while physical transport describes processes whereby chemicals move from one location to
another. During these processes, the concentrations and even the nature of the chemicals may
change. For example, benzene may be biologically transformed into the less toxic benzoic acid.
Dilution and dispersion may reduce chemical concentrations along a chemical migration
pathway.
The fate and transport of VOCs in landfill gas and landfill leachate are well known. The COPCs
derived for the Bozeman landfill are commonly reported in municipal waste landfills around the
globe. In general, landfill gas is generated at MSW landfills by the biological decomposition
(biodegradation) of organic materials that have been disposed of at the site. Landfill gas consists
primarily of methane and carbon dioxide, with smaller amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, ammonia,
hydrogen, sulfides, carbon monoxide and non-methane organic compounds (NMOCs) including
the VOCs (ATSDR 2001, Wood & Porter 1987, Williams 2002). Typically, the NMOCs make
up less than one percent (1%) of the volume of landfill gas. The production of gas and
generation of heat associated with decomposition creates elevated pressure within the landfill
which causes the gas to flow. Landfill gas may also move by diffusion and through areas of high
soil permeability. The COPCs in this analysis are hypothesized to be transported along with the
rest of the landfill gas.
At the Bozeman landfill, large quantities of landfill gas are trapped in an engineered gas
collection system and transported to a flare where they are combusted at high temperature. This
process removes VOCs from the landfill along with the landfill gas and combusts them into
toxicologically inert materials such as carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Most of the VOCs in landfill gas come either directly from waste that is disposed of in the
landfill or indirectly from the decomposition of other materials. As noted above, numerous
11 See http://www.epa.gov/risk_assessment/exposure.htm.
18
consumer products contain the COPCs identified in this report. In fact, prior to the recent
enactment of regulations restricting their use, there were many more opportunities for consumer
products to contain these COPCs. For example, benzene has been found in general performance
sealants (caulking, glues, and related materials), laundry starch preparations, lubricating oils,
automotive chemicals (including gasoline), industrial specialty chemical products, and scatter
rugs (including bathmats and sets)12. These materials may also be generated by biological
degradation of materials such as paper, yard waste and food waste. Staley et al (2006) found
benzene and related BTEX compounds generated from all three of these specific municipal
waste streams in addition to mixed MSW. At the Bozeman landfill, gas emissions are thought to
be primarily the result of direct emissions from the waste mass rather than from leachate or
liquid sources of pure VOCs (TetraTech 2014).
The generation of landfill gas is characterized by various phases (Williams 2002). In the first
phase, organic material in solid waste (paper, food waste, garden waste, wood, textiles) starts to
break down by processes known as hydrolysis and aerobic degradation. This results primarily in
the production of carbon dioxide. Following this, there are three stages of biodegradation
including fermentation, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis or methane generation. These
processes further break down the waste to organic acids such as acetic acid, more carbon
dioxide, and methane. Methane generation starts within a few years of waste being placed in a
landfill and continues to occur for the longest phase in the life of a landfill. Any VOCs that are
generated by biological activity or that were present in the waste to begin with will be carried in
the methane gas that is generated. Initially, methane gas generation increases up to a maximum
which is relatively constant for a period of years after which its rate of generation declines and
ultimately stops. At some point in the future the phase associated with the generation of methane
at the Bozeman landfill will terminate and the generation and transport of VOCs will likely
terminate with it. At this point, the main process will be oxidation where any remaining methane
will be converted to carbon dioxide and the landfill will stabilize regarding landfill gas
generation and VOC transport. Typically, the stable methane production phase lasts about 20
years with a range of 15-30 years (ATSDR 2001, Kjeldsen et al. 2002, Williams 2002). Due to
the age of the Bozeman landfill, this suggests that the production of landfill gas at the landfill
may have already peaked and both landfill gas generation and VOC transport are in a declining
mode. The exact time when this will occur at the Bozeman landfill, however, is a site-specific
phenomenon13.
The chemical processes in various phases of landfill gas also can affect the production and
biodegradation of specific VOCs. During methanogenesis, tetrachloroethene typically is
biologically transformed by reductive dechlorination to trichloroethene, dichloroethene, vinyl
chloride and ethene in sequence. This process may be the source of trichloroethene and vinyl
chloride in some soil vapor and subslab gas samples near the landfill. As the landfill ages,
methanogenesis will gradually be replaced by oxidation. When this occurs, the sequence will
change and the chemical intermediates trichloroethene and dichloromethane may be directly
12 http://scorecard.goodguide.com/chemical-profiles/consume-rproducts.tcl?edf_substance_id=71-43-2.
13 This can be modeled with a fair degree of reliability for most landfills; such modeling is outside the scope of this risk assessment.
19
oxidized to carbon dioxide and chloride salts. It is likely that the absence of significant amounts
of vinyl chloride in soil gas at this site is associated with oxidizing conditions that prevail outside
of the actively methane-generating portions of the landfill.
The CMA (TetraTech 2014) describes several mechanisms of VOC transport, particularly as it
applies to groundwater. Landfill gas migrating from a site tends to follow the path of least
resistance. Generally that path is toward the soil surface and the atmosphere, however, if
preferential migration pathways (fissures, utility structures, low permeability zones) exist, the
landfill gas may also follow those pathways. Groundwater containing VOCs may also migrate in
accordance with the principles of hydrogeology transporting VOCs with it. Under the
appropriate conditions, the VOCs may volatilize from the groundwater into soil along a path to
the surface of the soil and ultimately the atmosphere. Once in the atmosphere, VOCs will
disperse and ultimately be degraded by oxidation and photolysis.
As the VOCs migrate through the subsurface away from the landfill, their concentrations are
reduced due to diffusion, dilution, and biodegradation. Diffusion is a physicochemical process in
which volatile chemicals move from zones of high concentration to those of lower concentration.
In soil gas, diffusion is often upward toward the soil surface and the atmosphere. Dilution is the
process where the migrating VOCs encounter areas where the soil is occupied by clean air which
lowers the concentrations when the VOCs and the air are mixed. Many of the VOCs generated in
a landfill are biodegradable, either in the landfill itself, in landfill cover materials (including
daily cover), or in the surrounding soil. Regarding the COPCs addressed in this risk assessment,
the BTEX compounds are more biodegradable under aerobic conditions and thus would be more
likely to biodegrade in soils rather than in the anaerobic environment of the landfill. In general,
these compounds are short-lived in the soil environment. For example, the half-life of benzene
in soil ranges from 5 days to 16 days (Howard et al. 1991). Many of the chlorinated solvents are
more biodegradable under anaerobic conditions and thus will be less likely to biodegrade once
they have left the anaerobic environment of the landfill (EPA 2012a).
In addition to subsurface transport, VOCs may be transported by air. As discussed above, the
landfill operates a gas collection and treatment system consisting of 19 gas wells that collect
landfill gas and direct it to a flare where it is combusted to result in products such as carbon
dioxide, water, and salts. It is possible that some VOCs may escape this process and enter the air
from the surface of the landfill instead of being collected. In addition, it is possible that some
VOCs will not be totally combusted in the flare and will enter the atmosphere. These pathways
are likely to be negligible for a variety of reasons. First, the landfill gas extraction system has an
operational efficiency of 97%. Second, EPA (1991) notes that flares similar to the one operated
at the landfill are 98% efficient in capturing and destroying VOCs. Both of these factors suggest
that very little in the way of VOC concentrations will actually escape into the air. The flare
system is located north of the closed unlined cell. In addition, the landfill itself is elevated
between the Bridger Creek residences and the flare. Both of these factors will create a buffer
between the flare and the residences. Finally, the winds in the area mostly blow from the south
or southeast toward the north or northwest14 which means that any emissions from the landfill
14 Station Graph—Bozeman/Gallatin Field accessed 7/7/14. www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/wea_windrose2.pl.
20
surface or flare will be blown away from the residential area most of the time. The combination
of these factors leads to the conclusion that atmospheric emissions from the landfill are not a
significant source of VOCs.
The duration of landfill gas generation and the potential biodegradability of the COPCs has
ramifications to the risk assessment process. The default exposure assumptions to be used in this
risk assessment include a 26-year exposure duration. Given the age of the landfill and the
biodegradability of some of the COPCs (especially the BTEX compounds), it is not likely that
potential exposure will actually persist over the assumed exposure period.
If VOCs are transported to the soil gas present under homes, they may migrate vertically and
contact the foundation or slab on which a home has been built. Under the appropriate conditions,
they may be transported through a foundation or slab and enter the lower level of a home.
Generally speaking, the concentrations that migrate into the home are substantially lower than
the concentrations found in the soil gas. This is a process known as attenuation (EPA 2002,
2012b,c, Johnson & Ettinger 1991, CalEPA 2011). A review of all the data collected to date
shows that attenuation is clearly taking place at the Bridger Creek community residences. For
example, in one home the current concentration of a COPC was reduced by a factor of 11 from
the subslab to the first floor bedroom; in another case, a COPC found beneath the slab was not
detected at all in indoor air. This reduction is caused by several factors including resistance to
gas transport through concrete and related materials and dilution of incoming gas by ventilation.
The amount of this reduction is known as an attenuation factor which is commonly used in
exposure calculations for vapor intrusion risk assessments. In the example above, the factor of 11
reduction results in an attenuation factor of 0.09 for this particular COPC at this residence (i.e.,
1/11 = 0.09). This will be discussed in greater detail in Section 4.3.5.
In the Bridger Creek community, the residences are built on concrete slabs with or without crawl
spaces or basements. Individual slabs range from 2.5 inches to 16 inches in thickness with a
typical slab being 3-4 inches thick. Most residences have basements or crawl spaces, have
garages, are 1-3 stories in height and use forced-air heating. Since these residences are relatively
new and are well maintained, the slabs are more likely to be an effective barrier to vapor
intrusion than those in older homes. A few cracks or floor drains were noted during the home
sampling, but otherwise the slabs seem to be intact. Most of the indoor air measurements were
taken during winter months when the amount of ventilation is assumed to be low. The indoor air
concentrations are anticipated to be reduced during other seasons when there is probably more
ventilation.
As noted above, there are many indoor sources of the COPCs. VOCs may be emitted into the
atmosphere by processes known as evaporation, volatilization, and off-gassing. Evaporation is
the process whereby VOCs directly enter the atmosphere from a liquid material. The emission of
xylenes from paint thinner or benzene from spilled gasoline are examples of evaporation.
Volatilization is used to describe emissions of a VOC from a water solution. Emissions of 1,4-
dioxane from liquid detergent or chloroform from a washing machine where bleach is used are
21
examples of this phenomenon. Off-gassing (sometimes called degassing) refers to the emission
of VOCs from solid materials. The emission of benzene from new rugs or tetrachloroethene
from dry-cleaned clothes are examples of off-gassing. Emissions from indoor sources are likely
to last as long as the sources remain and indoor air has not be sufficiently changed by ventilation.
In addition, under some conditions, VOCs inside a residence could migrate under the slab
resulting in measureable subslab vapor levels. One scenario where this could occur is a direct
spill of a VOC-containing material like gasoline which would penetrate porous materials such as
concrete. Another scenario would be initiated by barometric pressure under the slab being lower
than that in a residence which could result in gas-phase diffusion of a VOC in indoor air through
the porous slab and into the subslab environment.
4.2 Potential Receptors and Exposure Pathways
In risk assessment terminology, a “receptor” is a person who is potentially exposed to a toxicant.
For this HHRA, the receptors are the individuals currently or potentially living or working in the
Bridger Creek community. This designation does not imply that exposure is occurring, but that
that there is a potential for exposure to occur under appropriate conditions. The potential
exposure pathway of significance that lead to the City conducting this risk assessment here is
migration of landfill gas containing VOCs or migration of groundwater containing VOCs from
the landfill toward the subdivisions. This is followed by upward migration of VOCs through soil
and foundations or slabs into residences. In a residence, the VOCs will be diluted by air
ventilation and the resultant concentrations may be inhaled by receptors.
4.3 Exposure Assumptions
The calculation of exposure requires the use of several numerical values that represent the
characteristics of a population. These values are often known as exposure assumptions since they
are based on demographics and the scientific and regulatory literature rather than the
characteristics of actual people. EPA exposure assessment guidance (EPA1989, 1992b,c, 1993)
differentiates between reasonable maximum and central tendency exposure scenarios. A
reasonable maximum exposure (RME) characterizes risk to an individual who is at the upper end
of the risk distribution. It is intended to be conservative (health protective) but plausible. In the
Superfund program, the RME is the highest exposure that is reasonably expected to occur at a
site and, in practice, is calculated by combining upperbound (e.g., 90th to 95th percentile) values
for some but not all exposure parameters. In contrast, the central tendency exposure (CTE) is
intended to represent more of an average or typical case. It is calculated using average or 50th
percentile values. Each of the exposure assumptions used in this risk assessment will be
discussed in the following sections. The values are also summarized in table 4 which is
consistent with the information requirements in EPA’s RAGS Part D.
22
Table 4
Summary of Exposure Factors
Exposure Factor RME Value CTE Value Exposure duration 26 years 12 years
Exposure Frequency 350 days/year 350 days/year
Lifetime 78 years 78 years
Exposure time 24 hours/day 16 hours/day Attenuation factor 0.1 0.05
4.3.1 Exposure duration is the number of years that a person is expected to remain at a
single location within the Bridger Creek community. The RME value of 26 years is a standard
EPA default exposure factor (EPA 2014). The CTE value of 12 years is the average value taken
from EPA’s Exposure Factors Handbook (EPA 2011b).
4.3.2 Exposure frequency is the number of days per year that a person is expected to be at
a single location in the Bridger Creek community. A value of 350 days per year is used for both
the RME and CTE cases as per EPA guidance.
4.3.3 Lifetime. The MDEQ has recommended the use of a lifetime of 78 years
(http://deq.mt.gov/StateSuperfund/frequentlyaskedquestions.mcpx#5). This is in contrast to
EPA’s use of a lifetime of 70 years (EPA 2014). Based on MDEQ recommendations, the value
of 78 years was used for both the RME and CTE scenarios.
4.3.4 Exposure time is the number of hours per day that a person may spend at a given
location within the Bridger Creek community. The RME value of 24 hours per day is a standard
EPA default exposure factor. The CTE value of 16 hours per day is the average value from
EPA’s Exposure Factors Handbook (EPA 2011b).
4.3.5 Attenuation factor. The subslab to indoor air attenuation factor (AF) describes the
reduction of VOC concentrations from soil gas into indoor air. EPA (2002, 2012b,c) often
recommends the use of a generic default attenuation factor of 0.1, meaning that the soil gas
concentration is a factor of 10 lower inside than out. This value which represents the 95th
percentile of available measurements, will be used as the RME attenuation factor in this risk
assessment. CalEPA (2011) performed a statistical analysis of 311 measurements of attenuation
factors compiled by EPA. They determined that an attenuation factor of 0.05, representing the
90th percentile of the data was an appropriate value for use in site-specific risk assessments. This
value will be used as the CTE attenuation factor. This range of AF values is consistent with
observations from Bridger Creek community residence sampling, although there are numerous
confounders in the Bridger Creek database. It should be noted that various investigators have
criticized these attenuation factors as being unrealistically high. Although suggesting 0.05 as a
default, CalEPA also notes that values ranging from 0.0002 to 0.002 may be appropriate. The
Oregon DEQ has included an AF of 0.005, representing the median which is a central tendency
23
measurement in their vapor intrusion guidance. For petroleum hydrocarbons such as the BTEX
compounds, Abreu et al (2009) found that values similar to those used in this risk assessment
were too high because they did not adequately account for biodegradation. Song et al. (2011)
concluded that values similar to those used in this risk assessment were too high because of bias
from indoor sources and Folkes et al. (2010) suggested that they were too high because many of
the measurements were based on short-term rather than long term data. A recent analysis
conducted by Brewer et al. (2014) divided the United States into different climatic regions and
calculated the AF based on vapor entry rates and air exchanges rates in buildings. For the region
that includes Montana, they determined that the AF was 0.0032. Although the values used in this
risk assessment may be too high, they were used in this risk assessment as conservative values in
the interests of health protectiveness.
4.4 Exposure Units and Exposure Point Concentrations
Two exposure areas were initially delineated for this HHRA – consistent with development and
past practice at the site, Bridger Creek Phase 2 and Bridger Creek Phase 3. The subslab average
and range of COPC concentrations in the two units are similar as shown in Table 5, below15.
Table 5
Average Subslab COPC Concentrations in Bridger Creek Subdivisions
(All concentrations in µg/m3)
COPC
Bridger Phase 2 Subslab Average
Bridger Phase 2 Subslab Range
Bridger Phase 3 Subslab Average
Bridger Phase 3 Subslab Range
Carbon tetrachloride 0.416 0.1-0.65 0.515 0.31-0.79
1,4-Dioxane 0.683 0.05-1.4 1.014 0.22-3.9
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 7.045 0.83-25 5.349 0.3-24
Benzene 5.533 0.1-27 3.149 0.31-17
1,2-Dichloroethane 0.112 0.06-0.2 1.635 0.06-14
Trichloroethene 0.14 0.04-0.24 0.586 0.02-5.6 Tetrachloroethene 1.03 0.22-2.6 7.712 0.06-210
Ethylbenzene 7.041 0.18-22 3.016 0.21-36
m,p-Xylene 26.21 0.54-86 10.48 0.72-86 Chloroform 1.947 0.069-5.7 0.477 0.064-1.6
A preliminary statistical test was conducted to determine if there was a quantitative difference
between the Phase 2 and Phase 3 subslab data. These statistical tests should be interpreted with
caution for several reasons including the fact that Phase 2 had, in most cases, only 16
measurements while Phase 3 had 54 measurements and that the variability in the data for the two
Phases was dissimilar. Both of these factors can cause statistical artifacts to occur, even with the
15 Refers to average and range of detected concentrations only. Calculated using EPA’s ProUCL 5 (EPA 2013 a,b).
24
use of non-parametric procedures. Measurements for benzene (likely to be the risk driver) were
compared for the two areas using the t-test and Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test in ProUCL (EPA
2013a,b). The results showed that there was no statistically significant difference between the
data for the two phases at a 95% level of confidence. Due to this equivalence, and the fact that
there are many more measurements in Bridger Creek Phase 3 compared to Phase 2, the data were
combined into a single dataset representing the entire Bridger Creek community for purposes of
this risk assessment. Although not necessarily apparent using these simple statistical procedures,
there are some suggestions of difference between the two datasets. Bridger Creek Phase 3
appears to be more highly impacted by chlorinated solvents, especially tetrachloroethene,
trichloroethene, and 1,2-dichloroethane. These materials have similar uses and often occur
together in the environment. On the other hand, Bridger Creek Phase 2 appears to be more
highly impacted by the BTEX compounds. This is significant as these compounds are
considerably more biodegradable compared to the chlorinated solvents and would be expected to
decrease in concentration as they traveled further from the landfill. The concentrations of the
BTEX compounds at Bridger Creek Phase 2 is indicative of a separate source. It should be noted
that more sophisticated chemometric techniques may identify further differences between the
two subdivisions and/or within the subdivisions, or even alternative sources, however,
application of these techniques is beyond the scope of this HHRA.
The exposure point concentration (EPC) represents the concentration of a VOC that someone in
the Bridger Creek community, future or present, could be exposed to if the VOC migrates into
indoor air. EPA (1992b) risk assessment practice is to use the arithmetic average concentration
for a COPC based on a set of site sampling results. EPA notes that, because of the uncertainty
associated with estimating the true concentration, the 95% upper confidence limit (UCL) of the
average should be used. This is intended to provide reasonable confidence that the true site
average will not be underestimated. This value is used for both the RME and CTE scenarios.
EPA (2013a,b) has developed software, known as ProUCL, for performing these calculations
and a comprehensive set of guidance documents (EPA 2013b) indicating how the software
should be used. In general, the calculation of the appropriate UCL value depends on the
probability distribution of the underlying dataset, variability in the data, number of samples, and
number of detected compared to non-detected values. All of these factors are accounted for in
EPA’s ProUCL software and guidance.
All available subslab analytical data for the exposure units were entered into ProUCL 5 which
was used to calculate summary statistics for the two areas combined. Two samples were
considered to be anomalous and were not included. Sample AI-7, a subslab duplicate was
removed due to lack of reported values or detection limits for several of the COPCs. Sample
SAI-2 had elevated detection limits that were reported by the laboratory to have been due to
interference by high levels of non-target compounds16. This sample was examined using EPA
guidance for handling statistical outliers (EPA 2006) and eliminated from inclusion. This left 91
samples in the database. In contrast to the COPC selection process in which measurements
16 Field observations reported by TetraTech suggest that these chemical interferences were associated with Styrofoam structural insulated panels used in construction of the house and/or a connected shed where chemicals
and paint are stored.
25
flagged as ND or <RL were excluded, ProUCL was used with NDs. After consulting with the
Data Validation Reports, it was decided that the reporting limit (RL) would be input for those
measurements reported as ND, <DL, or <RL. This was done in the two-column format as per
EPA guidance. ProUCL-recommended distribution type and 95% UCL was selected. The
outputs from ProUCL are summarized in Table 6 which is consistent with EPA’s reporting
requirements for RAGS Part D.
The 95% UCL concentrations in the subslab data were then used to estimate indoor air exposure
point concentrations using the attenuation factors for the RME (0.1) and CTE (0.05) scenarios
discussed in Section 4.3.5. These are shown in Table 7.
Table 6
Subslab COPC Concentration Statistics
(All concentrations in µg/m3)
COPC Arithmetic Mean 95% UCL17 Maximum Statistic to Calculate UCL18
Benzene 3.53 5.64(L) 27 95%KM(Chebyshev)
Carbon tetrachloride 0.502 0.526(G) 0.790 95%KM(t)
Chloroform 0.79 1.0(L) 5.7 95%KM(Chebyshev)
1,2-dichloroethane 1.09 1.42(O) 14 95%KM(Chebyshev)
1,4-Dioxane 1.27 0.674(G) 7.4 95%KM(t) Ethylbenzene 3.495 5.8(L) 36 95%KM(Chebyshev)
Tetrachloroethene 11.33 38.0(O) 340 97.5%(Chebyshev)
Trichloroethene 0.797 0.532(L) 5.6 95%KM(BCA) 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 5.34 7.66(AG) 25 95%KM(Chebyshev)
m,p-Xylene 12.67 19.91(L) 86 95%KM(Chebyshev)
17 Letter codes refer to type of underlying data distribution. L=lognormal, G = gamma, AG = approximate gamma, O = other (non-discernible). 18 Description of the statistical method used to calculate the 95% UCL. Reader is referred to EPA (2013a,b) for
more detail.
26
Table 7
Exposure Point Concentrations
(All concentrations in µg/m3)
COPC RME Concentration CTE Concentration
Benzene 0.564 0.282 Carbon tetrachloride 0.053 0.026
Chloroform 0.100 0.050
1,2-dichloroethane 0.142 0.071 1,4-Dioxane 0.067 0.034
Ethylbenzene 0.580 0.29
Tetrachloroethene 3.80 1.9
Trichloroethene 0.053 0.0265
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 0.766 0.383
m,p-Xylene 2.00 1.00
5. Toxicity Assessment
Regulatory and public health agencies have various ways of quantifying the toxicity of chemical
substances (toxicants) for use in risk assessments. These methods are based on a fundamental
principal of toxicology known as the dose-response relationship. This relationship states that the
effects of exposure to a toxic substance will be proportional to the dose or intake of the
substance. If the exposure occurs over a short period of time, it is known as an acute exposure
and the effects are acute effects which may differ from long-term effects. EPA (2011c) considers
acute exposure to refer to continuous exposure over a period of 24 hours or less. Long term
exposures may be associated with chronic effects. In toxicology, a chronic exposure usually is
considered to occur over several years or more. EPA (2011c) considers chronic exposures to be
repeated exposures over a period of 90 days or greater. There is a difference in the nature of the
dose-response relationship for chemical substances that may potentially cause cancer
(carcinogens) or those that can cause other toxic effects (systemic toxicants) after chronic
exposure. These differences will be discussed in subsequent sections. In risk assessment
practice, information regarding the toxicity of a chemical substance is expressed as a numerical
toxicity factor. The toxicity factors used in this risk assessment are based on EPA guidance
(EPA 2003a) and include data from EPA, especially EPA’s Integrated Risk Information System
(IRIS), the California Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA), and the federal Agency for
Toxic Substances Disease Registry (ATSDR). As will be seen in the sections that follow, the
likelihood of contracting cancer under the conditions of exposure is known as a cancer risk,
whereas the likelihood of a systemic non-cancer effect is known as a hazard.
27
5.1 Chronic Chemical Carcinogenicity
Some of the COPCs discussed in this report have been found to be associated with cancer either
in humans or laboratory animals following chronic exposure. EPA’s risk assessment methods in
general are based on a scientific hypothesis that exposure to any concentration of a potential
carcinogen, regardless of how small, will result in some cancer risk (probability of contracting
cancer). These risks are often characterized as “upperbound” due to the statistical techniques
that are used in their derivation. This means that the actual cancer risk could be substantially
lower than the calculated risk and could even approach zero.
The potential for cancer risk from inhalation exposure is calculated by multiplying a long term
air concentration by a toxicity factor called the inhalation unit risk (IUR). The unit risk is based
on a probability of 1 in 1 million (1 x 10-6 or 1E-06) that an individual would contract cancer
over a lifetime assuming a long duration of exposure. EPA also evaluates potential carcinogens
based on the weight of the scientific evidence that they can cause cancer in humans (EPA 2005).
The evidence for a chemical that has only been found to cause cancer in laboratory animals
under a limited set of circumstances is judged to be weaker than that for a chemical that has been
found to be associated with cancer in humans, especially under relevant conditions of exposure.
The toxicity data for the potentially carcinogenic COPCs are shown in Table 8 based on
requirements in EPA’s RAGS Part D.
Table 8
Toxicity Data for Potentially Carcinogenic COPCs
COPC Unit Risk (1/(µg/m3)) Weight of Evidence Information Source19
Benzene 7.8E-06 Known IRIS
Carbon tetrachloride 6.0E-06 Likely IRIS Chloroform 2.3E-05 Probable IRIS
1,2-dichloroethane 2.6E-05 Probable IRIS
1,4-Dioxane 5.0E-06 Likely IRIS Ethylbenzene 2.5E-06 Not classifiable CalEPA
Tetrachloroethene 2.6E-07 Likely IRIS
Trichloroethene 4.1E-06 Carcinogenic IRIS
For these COPCs, the weight of evidence for human carcinogenicity is strongest for benzene and
lowest for ethylbenzene. The cancer potency as reflected in the IUR values is highest for 1,2-
dichloroethane and for tetrachloroethene.
19 IRIS = EPA’s Integrated Risk Information System; CalEPA = California Environmental Protection Agency.
28
5.2 Chronic Chemical Systemic Toxicity
In contrast to potential carcinogens, EPA’s risk assessment methods for systemic toxicity are
based on the hypothesis that there is a concentration threshold, below which toxicity will not
occur. EPA has developed toxicity values by applying safety factors to toxicological thresholds.
These toxicity values, known as reference concentrations (RfCs), represent concentrations to
which the human population, including sensitive subgroups, may be exposed without adverse
health effects during a lifetime or part of a lifetime. EPA’s risk assessment methods also assume
that sub-threshold exposures to several chemicals at the same time could result in health effects
to a particular target organ. Thus, if an individual had been simultaneously exposed to three
substances that were toxic to the liver at a total concentration which exceeded a threshold, the
exposure would be considered to be toxic even if the chemicals individually were below the
threshold. Because of this, it is necessary to identify the target organ that has been associated
with toxicity for a particular substance. Finally, the uncertainty in the RfC is expressed by the
size of the uncertainty and modifying factors (safety factors) use to calculate the RfC from the
toxicological data. These factors ensure that the toxicity values are health protective. A low
value for these combined factors implies greater certainty in the data. Non-cancer toxicity data
for the COPCs based on information requirements in EPA’s RAGS Part D are shown in Table 9.
Table 9
Toxicity Data for Chronic Systemic Toxicants
COPC Inhalation RfC (mg/m3)
Primary Target Organ
Combined Uncertainty/ Modifying Factors Source20
Benzene 3E-02 Blood 300 EPA IRIS
Carbon
tetrachloride 1E-01 Liver 100 EPA IRIS
Chloroform 1E-01 Liver 100 EPA IRIS
1,2-dichloroethane 7E-03 Blood 3000 EPA PPRTV
1,4-Dioxane 3E-02 Upper respiratory tract 300 EPA IRIS
Ethylbenzene 1E+00 Developmental 300 EPA IRIS
Tetrachloroethene 4E-02 Nervous system 1000 EPA IRIS
Trichloroethene 2E-03 Thymus/fetal heart 100 EPA IRIS
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 7E-03 Blood 3000 EPA PPRTV
m,p-Xylene 1E-01 Nervous system 300 EPA IRIS
20 PPRTV = EPA’s Provisional Peer Reviewed Toxicity Values
29
For these COPCs, trichloroethene would be considered to be the most chronically toxic and
ethylbenzene the least. 1, 2-dichloroethane and 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene are the least
scientifically certain of the values while those for chloroform and trichloroethene are most
certain.
5.3. Acute Chemical Toxicity
Acute toxicity is also considered by EPA to be a threshold dose-response. In EPA risk
assessment practice, acute effects are assessed using acute exposure guideline levels (AEGLs).
There are three levels of AEGLs, known as AEGL-1, AEGL-2, and AEGL-3. AEGL-1 levels
are the most health protective and are defined as an airborne concentration above which the
general population including susceptible individuals could experience notable discomfort,
irritation or sensory effects. The effects are not disabling and are transient and reversible on
cessation of exposure. AEGL-2 values are less protective and refer to the concentration of a
substance above which the general population including susceptible individuals could experience
serious health effects. In this risk assessment, AEGL-1 values will be used when available.
When these values are not available, AEGL-2 values will be used. AEGL-3 values, which are
the least health-protective – will not be used in this HHRA. As with chronic systemic toxicity,
effects on target organs may be additive. The AEGL values for the COPCs are shown in Table
10. All of these values are taken from EPA’s AEGL website21.
Table 10
Acute Toxicity Data
COPC AEGL Value (mg/m3) AEGL Type Target Organ
Benzene 29 1 CNS
Carbon tetrachloride 36 2 CNS Chloroform 141 2 Reproductive system
1,4-Dioxane 60 1 Eye
Ethylbenzene 144 1 CNS Tetrachloroethene 240 1 Eye
Trichloroethene 410 1 CNS
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 220 1 CNS
m,p-Xylene 560 1 Eye
In contrast to chronic toxicity evaluations, acute hazards are evaluated by comparison to
maximum concentration values rather than 95% UCL values since a peak exposure over even a
short time period could result in acute effects.
21 www.epa.gov/oppt/aegl/pubs
30
5.4 Radon
Radon is an odorless, colorless gas that is formed naturally in geologic materials and which is
considered to be radioactive. On a national basis, exposure to radon is thought to be the second
highest cause of lung cancer (after smoking) and may result in up to 21,000 cases annually. The
MDEQ considers Gallatin County to be in radon zone 1 in which the predicted average indoor
radon concentration is greater than EPA’s action level of 4 pCi/L. The average indoor radon
level in Gallatin County has been calculated by the MDEQ to be 7 pCi/L compared to the
national average of 1.3 pCi/L. EPA (2003b) has developed specific methods for the risk
assessment of radon exposure that will be used in this report. EPA considers tobacco smoke and
radon exposure to be synergistic – in other words the combined effects are greater than would be
expected if the effects were additive. Because of this, EPA differentiates between non-smokers
and smokers in radon risk assessment. For the general population, the cancer risk is given by
0.002C and for non-smokers, it is given by 0.00062C where C is the radon concentration in
pCi/L. In contrast to the chemical risks calculated in this assessment, radon risk assessment
techniques have been derived from epidemiological data and are considered to have greater
certainty than risks associated with many chemical exposures.
6. Risk Characterization
Risk characterization is the process in which toxicity data is combined with exposure
information to yield estimates of risk. This section also interprets the risk values by putting them
into context.
6.1 Overall Bridger Creek Community Cancer Risk
EPA risk assessment practice is to calculate the upperbound excess lifetime cancer risk
associated with each potentially carcinogenic COPC using a series of standard formulas (EPA
1989, EPA 2009). The first step of the process involves calculating a chronic daily intake (CDI)
using the exposure point concentrations and exposure factors discussed above:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐= 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ×𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 × 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸×𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿𝐸𝐸
Where:
CDIc = chronic daily intake for carcinogenic effects (µg/m3)
EPC = exposure point concentration (µg/m3)
EF = exposure frequency (days/year)
ED = exposure duration (years)
ET = exposure time (fraction of 24-hour day)
LT = lifetime (days)
31
The CDI is then used to calculate the cancer risk for each COPC with potentially carcinogenic
effects:
Cancer Risk = CDIc x IUR
Where:
CDIc = chronic daily intake (µg/m3)
IUR = inhalation unit cancer risk (m3/µg)
In addition to the exposure variables, different conversion factors and constants are used to make
sure the dimensions of the variables are consistent with each other.
The total cancer risk for the conditions of exposure is calculated as the sum of the cancer risks for
each of the individual COPCs. This calculation is performed both for the RME and CTE cases.
Consistent with EPA practice, calculated cancer risks are rounded off to one significant figure.
Cancer risks are expressed as unitless probabilities of an individual developing cancer. For
example, a probability of 1 x 10-6 or 1E-06 represents a chance of one in one million that an
individual would develop cancer over a lifetime under the conditions of exposure which, in this
case, are hypothetical. In essence this unitless probability represents the upperbound increased
lifetime cancer risk associated with the exposure above the existing background for developing
cancer. Note that this method does not distinguish between types of cancer, but considers the
overall probability of developing cancer. In actuality, the various COPCs have been associated
with different types of cancer or cancer at different sites and target tissues.
In the United States, roughly one of every two men and one of every three women will contract
cancer over a lifetime. These statistics would translate to unitless probabilities of 0.50 for men
and 0.33 for women over a lifetime. Cancer incidence for Montana is consistent with overall US
rates. Gallatin County has cancer incidences less than a typical Montana County. Based on data
from the US Centers for Disease Control, the annual cancer incidence for Gallatin County is
0.004238 (NCI/CDC 2014). For a 78-year lifetime (consistent with the lifetime used in this
HHRA), the lifetime cancer probability (rate) would be 0.33 for men and women of all races
across all age groups. Regulatory agencies also use risk-based criteria to evaluate the results of a
risk assessment. EPA (1991a) considers exposure levels to be acceptable if the resultant lifetime
cancer risks are in the range from 1E-06 to 1E-04 (one in one million to one in ten thousand).
MDEQ (http://deq.mt.gov/StateSuperfund/frequentlyaskedquestions.mcpx#5) uses the midpoint
of this range (1E-05 or one in one hundred thousand) as its cancer risk criterion. The results of
the risk assessment for both the RME and the CTE cases are shown in Table 11.
32
Table 11
Lifetime Upperbound Excess Cancer Risks
COPC Reasonable Maximum Exposure (RME) Risk Central Tendency Exposure (CTE) Risk
Benzene 1.4E-06 2.2E-07
Carbon tetrachloride 1.0E-07 1.5E-08
Chloroform 7.4E-07 1.1E-07
1,2-dichloroethane 1.2E-06 1.8E-07
1,4-Dioxane 1.1E-07 1.7E-08 Ethylbenzene 8.0E-08 1.2E-08
Tetrachloroethene 3.2E-07 4.9E-08
Trichloroethene 1.9E-07 2.9E-08
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Not carcinogenic Not carcinogenic
m,p-Xylene Not carcinogenic Not carcinogenic
Total 4E-06 6E-07
The overall cancer risks for the hypothetical conditions of exposure are below EPA’s and
MDEQ’s risk criteria. This will be discussed in further detail in Section 6.4, below.
6.2 Overall Bridger Creek Community Chronic Non-cancer Hazard
Non-cancer hazard represents the potential for developing health effects other than cancer under
the conditions of exposure to COPCs evaluated in this risk assessment. EPA risk assessment
practice dictates that acceptable exposure levels for chemicals with non-cancer effects should
represent concentrations to which human populations, including sensitive subgroups, may be
exposed incorporating an adequate margin of safety. The potential for non-cancer hazard is
calculated by comparing the exposure point concentrations to the chronic reference
concentrations. This comparison results in a value known as the hazard quotient and is
calculated using the following series of equations:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐= 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ×𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸×𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸×𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐴𝐴𝐸𝐸
Where:
CDInc = non-cancer chronic daily intake (µg/m3)
EPC = exposure point concentration (µg/m3)
EF = exposure frequency (days/year)
ED = exposure duration (years)
ET = exposure time (fraction of 24-hour day)
AT = averaging time (days) (derived from ED)
33
The CDI is then used to calculate a hazard quotient for each COPC with non-carcinogenic
effects:
Chronic Hazard Quotient (HQ) = CDInc/RfC
Where:
CDInc = non-cancer chronic daily intake (µg/m3)
RfC = reference concentration (µg/m3)
A hazard quotient greater than 1 indicates that there is a potential for a non-cancer effect to occur
whereas a hazard quotient of one or less suggests that the concentration is safe (EPA 1991a). In
the case of potential exposure to a mixture of chemicals, EPA considers that the effects may be
additive. This is evaluated by calculating an overall hazard index (HI) which is the sum of the
individual COPC hazard quotients:
HI= Σ HQ
EPA risk assessment practice is to round off hazard quotient values to one significant figure. As
with the hazard quotients, a hazard index for the mixture that is greater than 1 indicates the
potential for a non-cancer health effect. If this occurs, EPA risk assessment practice requires
separating COPCs into subgroups representing effects on various target organs. For example,
chloroform and carbon tetrachloride could be separated into a subgroup representing liver effects
(hepatotoxicity). The hazard index would then be re-calculated for each subgroup as required.
Hazard quotients and hazard indices are shown for the COPCs in this risk assessment in Table 12.
Table 12
Chronic Systemic Non-cancer Hazards
COPC Chronic Reasonable Maximum Exposure (RME) Hazard Quotient
Chronic Central Tendency Exposure (CTE) Hazard Quotient Benzene 1.8E-02 2.4E-03
Carbon tetrachloride 5.1E-04 7.0E-05
Chloroform 9.8E-04 1.3E-04 1,2-dichloroethane 2.0E-02 2.6E-03
1,4-Dioxane 2.1E-03 2.8E-04
Ethylbenzene 9.6E-05 7.4E-05
Tetrachloroethene 9.1E-02 1.2E-02
Trichloroethene 2.5E-02 3.5E-03
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 1.0E-01 1.4E-02
m,p-Xylene 1.9E-02 2.6E-04
Total Chronic Hazard Index 0.3 0.04
34
In this case, neither individual hazard quotients nor the overall hazard index exceeds EPA’s
criterion of 1, thus it can be concluded that chronic non-cancer health effects are not likely to
occur under the conditions of exposure for either the RME or CTE scenarios.
6.3 Overall Bridger Creek Community Acute Non-cancer Hazard
Acute hazards are calculated in a manner similar to chronic hazards except that a chronic daily
intake is not required and that AEGL values are used rather than RfC values:
Acute Hazard Quotient (HQ) = Maximum EPC/AEGL
Acute HI = ΣHI
Due to the nature of acute risk, only one scenario representing exposure to the maximum
concentration is included. This scenario also assumes no attenuation since it is hypothetically
possible for an individual to have a very short-term exposure to subslab concentrations under
certain conditions, for example, when performing construction work. The results are shown in
Table 13.
Table 13
Acute Hazards
COPC Acute RME Hazard Quotient Benzene 9.3E-04
Carbon tetrachloride 2.2E-05
Chloroform 4.0E-05
1,4-Dioxane 1.2E-04 Ethylbenzene 2.5E-04
Tetrachloroethene 1.4E-03
Trichloroethene 1.4E-05 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 1.1E-04
m,p-Xylene 1.5E-04
Total Acute Hazard Index 3E-03
In this case, neither individual hazard quotients nor the overall hazard index exceeds EPA’s
criterion of 1, thus it can be concluded that acute non-cancer health effects are not likely to occur
under the conditions of exposure.
35
6.4 Individual Residence Cancer Risk and Non-cancer Hazard
In addition to the aggregate risks for the Bridger Creek Community, the RME risks potentially
associated with individual residences were also calculated. This was accomplished by using the
subslab data from each residence. If multiple values were available, the average value of subslab
concentrations was used. For cases where all the values were detected, the arithmetic mean was
used to calculate the average while for cases where there were mixed detects and non-detects, the
Kaplan-Meier technique (Atweiler & Taylor 2008, Helsel 2010) was used. If a chemical was
never detected, however, zero was imputed for the concentration. The RME upperbound cancer
risks were then calculated by taking the ratio of the concentrations of the COPCs for the
individual residences to the EPC for the Bridger Creek community. This assessment is highly
conservative in that it incorporates high end values for exposure frequency, exposure duration,
exposure time, and attenuation factor in addition to protective and conservative cancer toxicity
factors. The results, which reflect the summed cancer risks across all COPCs for each location,
are shown in Table 14.
36
Table 14
RME Cancer Risks for Individual Residences
Location Identifier RME Cancer Risk RME Hazard Index 6E-06 0.6
1E-06 0.2
2E-06 0.2
6E-07 0.04 4E-06 0.2
8E-07 0.09
1E-06 0.09 3E-06 0.09
4E-07 0.08
7E-07 0.1
1E-06 0.2
2E-06 0.1
7E-07 0.1
1E-06 0.2 4E-06 0.3
5E-06 0.8
1E-06 0.1 3E-06 0.1
1E-06 0.1
1E-05 0.3
8E-07 0.1
2E-06 0.2
1E-06 0.3
2E-06 0.3 2E-06 0.2
2E-06 0.03
2E-06 0.1 1E-06 0.04
5E-07 0.1
2E-06 0.1
7E-06 0.2 2E-06 0.2
1E-06 0.1
The RME cancer risks and hazard indices for the individual residences are consistent with those
for the Bridger Creek Community overall. RME cancer risks ranged from 4E-07 to 1E-05; RME
hazard indices range from 0.03 to 0.8. No individual RME cancer risk or hazard index exceeds
either EPA or MDEQ guidelines for acceptable risk levels.
37
6.5 Radon Risks
As discussed in Section 5.4, in general, people living in the Bridger Creek community are
exposed to radon that originates in geologic materials located under the homes. Although radon
is not a VOC, radon tests were conducted as a measure of performance of the mitigation systems
installed by the City (See Section 6.7). Most residences were found to have radon levels
exceeding EPA’s criterion of 4 pCi/L. Figure 3 shows the radon results before (red bars) and
after (green bars) installation of the mitigation systems.
Figure 3
Radon Reduction after Mitigation
Overall, the mitigation systems reduced the 95% UCL radon concentrations from15.92 pCi/L
before mitigation to 2.46 pCi/L after mitigation which is an 85% reduction. Using EPA’s radon
risk assessment methodology, the radon risks before mitigation ranged from 4E-02 (4 in 100) for
smokers to 1E-02 (1 in one 100) for non-smokers. Following mitigation, these risks decreased to
6E-03 (smokers) and 2E-03 (non-smokers). In general, the results showed that EPA’s radon
criterion was not exceeded after mitigation, although this criterion is based on other factors in
addition to risk assessment.
38
6.6 Risk Context
Many everyday activities undertaken by people involve risk in some form. Driving a car,
smoking a cigarette, or crossing a street can all be considered risky activities because they can
result in a negative outcome. Individuals, consciously or unconsciously, assess risks and make
decisions about the acceptability of a risk before undertaking an activity. Regulatory agencies
also make decisions about risks, for example, when setting regulatory standards for air quality or
drinking water.
Covello et al. (1988) discuss several different methods for comparing risks that can often help
put the results of a risk assessment into perspective. One of the most common and preferred risk
comparison methods involves comparing risks to a regulatory standard or guideline. For
example, regulatory and public health agencies have identified benchmark risk levels and
regulatory standards to evaluate a wide variety of activities that may pose risks to consumers,
communities, or workers. In this risk assessment, all of the cancer risks and chronic and acute
hazards were lower than regulatory benchmark risk levels used by EPA or MDEQ.
Another risk comparison method noted by Covello et al. (1988), is to compare risk assessment
results to other risks prevailing in society. Research has shown that a person’s perception of risk
is based on both the actual risk (e.g., the risk that can be calculated based on measured data or
through the conduct of a risk assessment) and many personal factors. Some of the personal
factors that affect risk perceptions include (Covello and Sandman 2001):
• whether the risk is voluntary (e.g., smoking) or not,
• whether the risk can be controlled by a person (e.g., driving) or not,
• whether the risk is familiar (e.g., use of household cleaners) or not,
• whether the risk has catastrophic potential to cause many deaths or injuries (e.g., airplane crash) or not,
• whether the risk evokes a sense of great fear or anxiety (e.g., Ebola or HIV virus) or not,
• whether the risk is uncertain or can be based on actual measured data, and
• whether the risk results from an activity located near to a person or located farther away at a distant location.
Keeping these personal factors in mind, one can compare the results from this risk assessment
and also the EPA and MDEQ benchmark cancer risk levels to other risks prevailing in society.
Table 15 presents a variety of lifetime risks generally prevailing in the U.S. The risks of
developing cancer associated with vapor intrusion calculated in this risk assessment are much
lower than other risks prevailing in society.
39
Table 15
Risks Associated with Various Events
Activity or Situation Lifetime Risk
Foodborne illness (incidence) greater than 1 in 1
Cancer (incidence) 1 in 3
Cigarette smoking (death) 1 in 5
Heart disease (death) 1 in 8
Cancer (death) 1 in 8
Influenza and pneumonia (death) 1 in 90
Unmitigated Bridger Creek radon lung cancer risk 1 in 100 (non-smokers)
4 in 100 (smokers)
Motor vehicle accident (death) 1 in 100
Falls (death) 1 in 190
Criminal homicide 1 in 240
HIV disease (death) 1 in 360
Accidental electrocution 1 in 4,000
Accidental discharge of firearms 1 in 7,100
Drowning (in bathtub) 1 in 11,000
Tornado 1 in 39,000
Lightning 1 in 39,000
Commercial aircraft accident 1 in 40,000
Bee/wasp sting 1 in 80,000
EPA acceptable risk range 1 in 1,000,000
to 1 in 10,000
MDEQ risk criterion 1 in 100,000
Bridger Creek Community RME Upperbound Cancer Risk 4 in 1,000,000
The reader should keep in mind that the estimated risks associated with potential exposure to
VOC vapor intrusion at Bridger Creek are hypothetical, upperbound risks while many of the
risks in Table 15 are actual risks based on the observed incidence of various adverse effects. For
example, the cancer incidence rate in the United States of 1 in 3 or 0.33 is based on many years
of data collected by the National Cancer Institute and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
whereas the Bridger Creek Community RME cancer risk is based on hypothetical, upperbound
calculations designed to be protective of public health.
40
6.7 Effect of Mitigation Measures
The City of Bozeman installed mitigation measures in 27 residences in Bridger Creek Phase 3
starting in 2013. These mitigation measures were in the form of subslab depressurization
systems. In essence, these systems create low pressure under the slab which removes any soil
gas that might be present. The soil gas is then vented at a location where it will not be associated
with human exposure indoors. These systems are essentially the same systems used for many
years for radon mitigation, thus have a known track record of effectiveness. Radon
measurements made before and after the installation of subslab depressurization systems are, in
fact, a good indicator of their effectiveness. This is due to the fact that, unlike the COPCs in this
risk assessment, soil gas is the only known source of radon22. The mitigation systems reduced
the 95% UCL radon concentrations from 15.92 pCi/L before mitigation to 2.46 pCi/L after
mitigation which is an 85% reduction.
Another way of judging the effectiveness of a subslab depressurization system is by measuring
the pressures under the slabs. Since the systems are designed to create a vacuum under the slabs
the difference in pressure under the slab compared to the atmospheric pressure indicates how
effectively the system is performing. Numerous pressure measurements have been made since
the systems were that demonstrate they are systems are functioning as designed.
There have also been decreases in VOCs both in subslab soil gas and indoor air. Most VOCs
have seen large decreases in concentrations under the slabs while there have been a few instances
of increases in a limited number of VOCs. These apparent increases may be due to natural
variability in VOC concentrations or seasonal effects on VOC migration. Similar changes have
been measured in indoor air, however, these are more difficult to interpret since it is likely there
are multiple sources of these VOCs.
When viewed overall, the changes in radon concentrations, vacuum measurements and changes
in both subslab and indoor air VOCs all lead to the conclusion that the mitigation systems are
functioning as intended.
6.8 Uncertainty Analysis
The results of any risk assessment inherently reflect some uncertainty because of the many
complexities involved in the analysis. In accordance with standard risk assessment practice, this
section presents discussions of key uncertainties affecting the risk assessment. In general,
uncertainties in risk assessments, including this one, are addressed by using conservative (i.e.,
health protective) assumptions which collectively produce risk results much more likely to be
overestimated than underestimated.
This risk assessment involved the integration of many steps, each of which is characterized by
some uncertainty. These steps included the following:
22 Other potential sources of radon exposure such as indoor use of stone (e.g. granite countertops in kitchens) were
not evaluated in this HHRA.
41
• Selection of COPCs
• Calculating exposure point concentrations
• Calculating potential exposures to humans
• Calculating potential risks using toxicity information derived in some instances from
human data but predominantly derived by extrapolation from experimental data produced in animal studies
COPCs were selected using a method developed by the MDEQ. This method is intended to
identify those COPCs that are responsible for a majority of the risk that is associated with
migration of vapors from subslab soil gas into indoor air. As has been noted several times in this
assessment, there are many possible sources of VOCs found in indoor air. One of these may be
migration of landfill gas with associated transport of VOCs. None of the VOCs measured in the
Bridger Creek residences is unique to landfill gas and the methods used to sample and analyze
the VOCs were designed to yield total concentrations rather than concentrations associated with
landfill gas only. In the risk assessment, the effects of alternative indoor sources were minimized
(although not eliminated) by using subslab soil gas data in conjunction with attenuation factors.
This cannot distinguish, however, between alternative subsurface sources (e.g., leaking
underground fuel tanks, pipelines, former development at the site).
Two quality assurance checks were performed to determine if the selection of COPCs was
sufficiently conservative. One quality check concerned the presence of chemicals under the slab
that had not been found in indoor air but which could migrate into indoor air in the future. A
search of the database revealed two VOCs, bromomethane and chlorobenzene that had been
found in subslab samples but not in indoor air samples. The potential impact of these
occurrences was assessed by calculating the worst-case risks associated with exposure to these
chemicals if they should penetrate the slabs in the future. These risks are considered to be worst-
case because the maximum value rather than the 95% UCL on the mean was used in the
calculation. Neither of these chemicals is considered to be carcinogenic to humans, thus only
chronic non-cancer hazards were calculated. The hazard index for this scenario was 0.02, thus
even if these chemicals did penetrate the slabs in the future, they would not contribute materially
to non-cancer hazards. The second quality check involved the question of whether any potential
carcinogens that were eliminated by the selection process could cause the calculated risks to
exceed regulatory guidelines or risks associated with everyday life. A search of the database
showed that only two carcinogens found in subslab vapor had been eliminated – vinyl chloride
and methyl-t-butyl ether (MTBE). These two chemicals were detected sporadically and at lower
concentrations than the chemicals that were chosen as COPCs and were below the corresponding
RSLs. The potential impact of not selecting these chemicals was analyzed by calculating the
worst case risk associated with potential exposure by using the maximum concentration for both
chemicals. The additional risks associated with this potential exposure was calculated to be
7E-08, thus they would not contribute materially to the overall risk.
In many instances, measurements were reported as being below reporting limits. This could
mean that the chemical was not present, was present but not capable of quantification, or was
42
interfered with by the presence of other chemicals. In some cases, the reporting limits were
higher than the risk screening values which theoretically could lead to an underestimation of risk
since these measurements were eliminated from the selection of COPCs although not from the
estimation of exposure point concentrations. This effect, if present, was likely not significant for
two reasons. First, the database is sufficiently large to compensate for these occurrences and
second, the methods used by ProUCL to estimate 95% UCLs were selected to take this
phenomenon into account.
With respect to the calculation of human exposure, no ventilation measurements were available
for any of the residences. In essence, this was compensated for by assuming that the residences
were not ventilated. This would have the net impact of over-estimating exposure and risk.
This HHRA relied on a screening level exposure model based on the use of default attenuation
factors designed to over-estimate exposure and risk. The calculation of more realistic vapor
intrusion rates depends on a variety of factors including pressure differential between the subslab
and the building, ventilation, number and area of concrete cracks and joints, temperature
differences between indoors and outdoors, wind loading on the building, climatic regimes, and
other factors (Patterson & Davis 2009, Brewer et al. 2014). More refined models, ranging from
Johnson & Ettinger (1991) to Yao et al. (2011) could be applied and would likely generate less
conservative but more realistic results. In addition, this HHRA assumed that any vapors entering
a residence would be uniformly dispersed throughout a residence. Especially when combined
with the lack of ventilation considerations, this is a highly conservative approach that will likely
lead to over-estimation of exposure and risk. Use of a refined model such as EPA’s Multi-
Chamber Concentration and Exposure Model (MCCEM)23 would likely yield less conservative
indoor air concentrations and more realistic results.
Variable uncertainty results from complexities in the values used in equations in the risk
assessment. These uncertainties may stem from measurement, random or systematic errors
associated with the numerical values assigned to input parameters. Variable uncertainty may be
reducible through additional research or analysis (i.e., better data). Uncertain variables in this
risk assessment include exposure frequency, exposure duration, exposure time, lifetime and the
value used as an attenuation factor. Values for each of these variables were chosen from EPA
guidance and technical literature to reflect reasonable maximum and central tendency exposures.
As an example, the risk assessment assumed that people would be exposed to the current
exposure point concentrations for a total of 26 years. This represents an overestimate for current
exposure as these developments are, on the whole, substantially younger than 26 years. This also
represents an overestimate for future exposure because of the effect of mitigation systems in
homes. In addition, the generation of landfill gas follows a known cycle. Due to the age of this
landfill and the operation of landfill gas collection systems, this landfill has likely passed its peak
of gas production and thus the amounts of VOCs being transported are declining. At some point
in the future, there will be no detectable VOCs associated with gas generation at the landfill, thus
making a 26 year exposure to current concentrations unrealistic. It should also be kept in mind
that landfill gas at the landfill itself is being extracted and treated. Analyses of the landfill gas at
23 http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/exposure/pubs/mccem.htm
43
the treatment flare shows that significant removal and destruction of VOCs is occurring which is
also likely to reduce the overall exposure duration.
In the case of the number of years in a lifetime, MDEQ uses a different basis than EPA which
results in an MDEQ lifetime of 78 years compared to an EPA lifetime of 70 years. The MDEQ
value was used in the HHRA to be consistent with other risk assessments performed in Montana,
however, use of this value could result in a slight under-estimate (about 11%) in cancer risk
compared to EPA’s values. This difference is too small to have a significant impact on the
results and conclusions.
The risk assessment results presented earlier in this report reflect the combination of these
potential sources of uncertainty. Collectively, however, the assumptions used in this assessment
are considered much more likely to overestimate risks than underestimate them.
One final overall quality assurance check was performed to determine if the risks for residences
closest to the landfill had been underestimated by including them in the overall calculation of
aggregate risk for the Bridger Creek Community. This was addressed by calculating the risks for
the group of residences closest to the landfill. These included locations designated as ,
. The exact same procedure was used
as was used in calculating the RME cancer risk for the Bridger Creek Community as a whole.
The RME cancer risk for this group of residences was 9E-06 compared to 4E-06 for the
Community overall. Thus, although the risks from this group are slightly elevated, they are still
within EPA and MDEQ regulatory guidelines and do not represent a significant difference from
the overall risks.
7. Summary and Conclusions
This risk assessment presents a systematic process for evaluating the potential for health effects
associated with potential exposure to chemical compounds present in subslab soil gas in the
Bridger Creek subdivision community. A formal process consistent with MDEQ guidance was
used to identify a group of chemicals, referred to as COPCs, anticipated to be associated with the
greatest risk. Ten COPCs were determined by this process (benzene, carbon tetrachloride,
chloroform, 1,2-dichloroethane, 1,4-dioxane, ethylbenzene, tetrachloroethene, trichloroethene,
1,2,4-trimethylbenzene, and m,p-xylene ). Because of the methodologies used to sample and
analyze these chemicals, it was not possible to entirely separate COPCs or other VOCs that may
have originated from the landfill versus from other sources. Basically, all of the COPCs have
other potential sources that could be responsible for some, if not all, of indoor air concentrations.
The COPCs were input to exposure and risk calculations based on EPA methodology. In
accordance with EPA guidance, both reasonable maximum exposure (RME) and central
tendency exposure (CTE) scenarios were assessed. The RME is intended to represent an
exposure scenario that is characteristic of the 90th to 95th percentile of exposure whereas the CTE
scenario represents more of a typical or average exposure. Health risks for cancer, non-cancer
chronic systemic effects, and non-cancer acute effects were calculated for the chemicals of
potential concern. The risk values that were calculated showed that the current and/or future
44
potential risks are within acceptable risk ranges established by the EPA and the MDEQ under the
conditions of exposure used in this risk assessment. Further, it was shown that the risks are
substantially lower than those associated with many aspects of everyday life. The primary
reason for these low risks is the fact that the chemicals of concern are generally present at very
low levels. It may be concluded that using EPA methods, the potential risks posed by subslab
soil gas to the community meet generally accepted regulatory public health guidelines. Although
the risks are currently low, it is anticipated that they will be even lower in the future due to
natural aging processes at the landfill and mitigation measures installed by the City.
The process used by the City to monitor the efficacy of the mitigation measures also allowed the
calculation of risks associated with naturally occurring radon that could also intrude into
residences. Radon is widespread in Gallatin County due to emissions from geologic materials. In
contrast to the risk associated with chemical compounds, the radon risk was found to exceed
regulatory guidelines. For more information about radon, homeowners or occupants should
contact the Gallatin City-County Health Department (http://healthygallatin.org/healthy-
homes/air-quality/radon/).
Finally, this investigation revealed suggestive evidence of indoor sources to many of the VOCs.
The potential risks associated with indoor VOC sources would be affected by the types of
sources (e.g., types of consumer products), the amounts used indoors, and other factors such as
ventilation. There are many resources available to people who wish to minimize their exposure
to indoor sources of VOCs. EPA’s indoor air quality website (http://www.epa.gov/iaq/voc.html)
has a substantial amount of general information plus steps that people can take to improve their
indoor air quality. Another good source of general information is the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/indoorenv/chemicalsodors.html). The
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry has specific information about many of the
chemicals found in indoor air (http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/substances/index.asp). The National
Institutes of Health has a product-specific data base that can help individuals identify exactly
what toxic substances may be contained in common consumer products
(http://hpd.nlm.nih.gov/).
8. References
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49
APPENDIX A –TECHNICAL GLOSSARY
Acute – having a sudden onset or lasting a short time. The word acute may be used to define
either the exposure or the effect.
Biodegrade – decompose into more elementary compounds by the action of living organisms like
bacteria.
BTEX – term used for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene typically found in petroleum
products such as gasoline or diesel fuel. In this HHRA, refers to all monoaromatic petroleum
hydrocarbons.
Central tendency exposure (CTE) – quantitative estimate of exposure representing an average or
typical situation.
Chemicals of Potential Concern (COPCs) – chemicals that are potentially site-related, most
likely to be of concern to human health, and whose data are of sufficient quality to use in a risk
assessment.
Chronic – involving a stimulus that is lingering or continuing over a long time.
Concentration – the relative amount of a substance in an environmental medium expressed by
mass, volume, or number of units.
Detection limit – the lowest concentration of a chemical that can be distinguished reliably from a
zero concentration.
Exposure – contact or co-occurrence of a stressor and receptor.
Exposure point concentration (EPC) – that value which represents a conservative estimate of the
chemical concentration available from a particular medium or route of exposure.
Exposure scenario – a set of assumptions concerning how an exposure takes place, including
assumptions about the exposure setting, chemical characteristics, and activities of a person that
can lead to exposure.
Hazard index (HI) – the sum of more than one hazard quotient for multiple substances and/or
multiple exposure pathways. The HI is calculated separately for chronic and acute exposures.
Hazard quotient (HQ) – the ratio of an exposure level to a substance to a toxicity value selected
for the risk assessment of that substance.
Hydrocarbon – an organic compound containing only hydrogen and carbon occurring often in
petroleum, natural gas, and coal.
Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) – an electronic database that contains EPA’s latest
descriptive and quantitative toxicology information about chemical constituents.
Medium – the environmental substance (water, soil, air) that is contaminated.
Permeability – the relative ease with which rock, soil, or sediment can transmit a fluid.
Reasonable Maximum exposure (RME) – the highest exposure that is reasonably expected to
occur at a site.
Receptor – the person or community that is exposed to the stressor.
Risk—the expected frequency or probability of undesirable effects resulting from exposure to
stressors.
Risk assessment – quantitative evaluation of the risk posed to human health by the actual or
potential presence or release of hazardous substances.
Stressor – any physical, chemical or biological entity that can induce an adverse response. In
this HHRA, limited to chemicals and ionizing radiation from radon.
Toxicant – a poisonous or potentially poisonous substance.
Toxicity -- the degree to which a chemical substance or physical agent elicits a deleterious or
adverse effect on the biological system of an organism exposed to the agent over a designated
time period.
Toxicity value – a numerical expression of a substance’s exposure-response relationship that is
used in risk assessments.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) - one of a group of carbon containing compounds that
evaporates readily a room temperature. Examples of VOCs include trichloroethene and BTEX.
APPENDIX B – DATA WORKSHEETS
Ri
s
k
An
a
l
y
s
i
s
Da
t
a
b
a
s
e
Re
c
'
d
Ma
y
8 fr
o
m
TT
‐
Se
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
of
CO
P
C
s
Pa
g
e
1 of
3
7/3/2014
Da
t
a
Sc
r
e
e
n
i
n
g
(a
)
St
r
e
e
t
Au
g
u
s
t
a
Dr
i
v
e
Ca
d
d
i
e
Co
u
r
t
Mc
I
l
h
a
t
t
a
n
Rd
S
t
.
An
d
r
e
w
s
Dr
i
v
e
Ho
u
s
e
/
S
a
m
p
l
e
Lo
c
a
t
i
o
n
(c
)
1A
I
6A
I 7
2M
I
Co
m
p
o
u
n
d
Ma
x
IA
>
RS
L
?
If
Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
IA
>
RS
L
?
If
Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
IA
>
RS
L
?
If
Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
IA
>
RS
L
?
If
Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
IA
>
RS
L
?
If
Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
IA
>
RS
L
?
If
Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
IA
>
RS
L
?
If
Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
IA
>
RS
L
?
If Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
IA
>
RS
L
?
If Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
IA
>
RS
L
?
If
Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
>
Max IA > RSL?If Max IA > RSL … then Max SS > Max IA > RSL?If Max IA > RSL … then Max SS >
11
1
T
r
i
c
h
l
o
r
o
e
t
h
a
n
e
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
11
D
i
c
h
l
o
r
o
e
t
h
a
n
e
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
12
4
T
r
i
m
e
t
h
y
l
b
e
n
z
e
n
e
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
no
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
‐‐
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
no
ye
s
‐‐
ye
s
ye
s
no ‐‐yes ‐‐
12
D
i
c
h
l
o
r
o
e
t
h
a
n
e
ye
s
no
ye
s
‐‐
ye
s
no
ye
s
no
ye
s
‐‐
ye
s
no
‐‐
‐
‐
ye
s
no
ye
s
‐‐
no
‐‐
yes ‐‐yes no
14
D
i
o
x
a
n
e
n
o
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
ye
s
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
‐‐
ye
s
no
n
o
‐‐ ‐‐ ‐‐
2B
u
t
a
n
o
n
e
n
o
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
2H
e
x
a
n
o
n
e
n
o
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
2P
r
o
p
a
n
o
l
n
o
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
4M
e
t
h
y
l
2
p
e
n
t
a
n
o
n
e
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
Ac
e
t
o
n
e
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
Be
n
z
e
n
e
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
no
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
‐‐
ye
s
no
ye
s
no
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
‐‐
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
‐‐
Br
o
m
o
m
e
t
h
a
n
e
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
Ca
r
b
o
n
D
i
s
u
l
f
i
d
e
‐‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
Ca
r
b
o
n
T
e
t
r
a
c
h
l
o
r
i
d
e
ye
s
no
ye
s
no
ye
s
no
ye
s
no
ye
s
‐‐
ye
s
no
ye
s
‐‐
ye
s
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐yes ‐‐
Ch
l
o
r
o
b
e
n
z
e
n
e
‐‐
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
Ch
l
o
r
o
e
t
h
a
n
e
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
Ch
l
o
r
o
f
o
r
m
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
no
ye
s
no
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
‐‐
ye
s
‐‐
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
‐‐
ye
s
‐‐
ye
s
y
e
s
‐‐ ‐‐ ‐‐ ‐‐
Ch
l
o
r
o
m
e
t
h
a
n
e
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
ye
s
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
ci
s
1
2
D
i
c
h
l
o
r
o
e
t
h
e
n
e
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
Cu
m
e
n
e
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
Cy
c
l
o
h
e
x
a
n
e
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
Et
h
y
l
B
e
n
z
e
n
e
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
no
n
o
‐‐
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
‐‐
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
no
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
‐‐
ye
s
y
e
s
no ‐‐yes no
Fr
e
o
n
1
1
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
Fr
e
o
n
1
1
3
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
Fr
e
o
n
1
2
no
‐‐
ye
s
no
n
o
‐‐
no
‐‐
ye
s
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
He
x
a
n
e
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
ye
s
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
Me
t
h
y
l
e
n
e
C
h
l
o
r
i
d
e
‐‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐‐
‐
‐
no ‐‐ ‐‐ ‐‐
Me
t
h
y
l
T
e
r
t
B
u
t
y
l
E
t
h
e
r
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no ‐‐
mp
X
y
l
e
n
e
ye
s
y
e
s
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
ye
s
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
oX
y
l
e
n
e
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
ye
s
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
Pr
o
p
y
l
b
e
n
z
e
n
e
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no ‐‐
St
y
r
e
n
e
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
Te
t
r
a
c
h
l
o
r
o
e
t
h
e
n
e
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
ye
s
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
Te
t
r
a
h
y
d
r
o
f
u
r
a
n
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
To
l
u
e
n
e
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no ‐‐no ‐‐
tr
a
n
s
1
2
D
i
c
h
l
o
r
o
e
t
h
e
n
e
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
Tr
i
c
h
l
o
r
o
e
t
h
e
n
e
‐‐
‐
‐
ye
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
ye
s
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐‐ ‐‐yes yes
Vin
y
l
C
h
l
o
r
i
d
e
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no
‐‐
no
‐‐
ye
s
‐‐
no
‐‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
no ‐‐ ‐‐ ‐‐
To
t
a
l
s
(n
u
m
b
e
r
of
"y
e
s
"
re
s
u
l
t
s
)
75
8
1
6
2
7
5
1
4
0
6
2
6
2
7
3
7
0
5
4
2
1
6
1
IA
= in
d
o
o
r
air
RS
L
= ris
k
sc
r
e
e
n
i
n
g
le
v
e
l
SS
= su
b
‐sla
b
(b
)
No
su
b
‐sla
b
sa
m
p
l
e
s
we
r
e
av
a
i
l
a
b
l
e
fo
r
CI ‐1.
(c
)
La
n
d
f
i
l
l
sa
m
p
l
e
s
ar
e
no
t
sh
o
w
n
(L
F
I
‐1 an
d
LF
I
‐2)
.
(a
)
Sa
m
p
l
e
da
t
a
co
n
s
i
d
e
r
e
d
in
th
e
sc
r
e
e
n
i
n
g
in
c
l
u
d
e
d
all
su
b
‐sla
b
sa
m
p
l
e
s
an
d
al
l
in
d
o
o
r
air
sa
m
p
l
e
s
(e
x
c
e
p
t
th
o
s
e
fr
o
m
cr
a
w
l
sp
a
c
e
s
)
wit
h
de
t
e
c
t
a
b
l
e
co
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
s
th
a
t
we
r
e
co
l
l
e
c
t
e
d
be
f
o
r
e
mit
i
g
a
t
i
o
n
.
Da
t
a
ob
t
a
i
n
e
d
from Tetra Tech's excel file.
‐‐
= No
t
ap
p
l
i
c
a
b
l
e
.
If
th
i
s
en
t
r
y
is
sh
o
w
n
in
th
e
"M
a
x
IA
> RS
L
"
co
l
u
m
n
,
it
me
a
n
s
th
e
co
m
p
o
u
n
d
wa
s
no
t
de
t
e
c
t
e
d
in
an
y
in
d
o
o
r
ai
r
sa
m
p
l
e
s
.
If
th
i
s
en
t
r
y
is
sh
o
w
n
in
th
e
"M
a
x
SS
> Ma
x
IA
"
co
l
u
m
n
,
it
me
a
n
s
th
e
co
m
p
o
u
n
d
was not detected in any sub ‐
sla
b
sa
m
p
l
e
s
or
th
e
se
c
o
n
d
sc
r
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‐
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of
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2 of
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7/3/2014
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no
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52
6
0
8
4
5
3
5
1
3
1
7
5
7
2
5
3
7
4
5
3
Ri
s
k
An
a
l
y
s
i
s
Da
t
a
b
a
s
e
Re
c
'
d
Ma
y
8 fr
o
m
TT
‐
Se
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
of
CO
P
C
s
Pa
g
e
3 of
3
7/3/2014
Da
t
a
Sc
r
e
e
n
i
n
g
(a
)
St
r
e
e
t
Ho
u
s
e
/
S
a
m
p
l
e
Lo
c
a
t
i
o
n
(c
)
Co
m
p
o
u
n
d
11
1
T
r
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e
t
h
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e
11
D
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a
n
e
12
4
T
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b
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n
e
12
D
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e
14
D
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o
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‐C Indoor Air 07/12/2013Indoor Air Max (excluding crawlspace)Subslab MaxMax IA > RSL?If Max IA > RSL … then Max SS > Max IA?
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9
6
6.9
1
0
n
o
‐‐
9.5
0
6
.
6
0
2
7
.
0
0
27 NA yes ‐‐
1.
2
0
1
.
1
0
1
.
2
0
1
.
5
0
1
.
3
0
1
.
5
0
2
.
2
0
0
.
3
7
0
.
3
4
1.5
2
.
2
n
o
‐‐
1.5
0
0
.
9
1
3
.
7
0
3.7 NA no ‐‐
0.
4
7
0
.
3
9
0
.
4
8
0.4
4
1.
4
0
0.
2
1
0.
4
8
1
.
4
n
o
‐‐
5.6
0
2
.
2
0
2
.
2
0
5.6 NA no ‐‐
0.0
6
0.0
7
0.
9
3
0
.
7
9
0
.
8
6
0.0
7
2
0
.
9
3
n
o
‐‐
0.8
4
1
.
4
0
4
.
7
0
4.7 NA yes ‐‐
1.
4
0
1
.
5
0
2
.
0
0
2
.
8
0
2
.
0
0
2
.
7
0
2
.
0
0
0
.
5
6
0
.
5
5
2.8
2
n
o
‐‐
1.6
0
1
.
2
0
1
.
4
0
1.6 NA no ‐‐
14
.
0
0
1
5
.
0
0
1
9
.
0
0
2
1
.
0
0
1
8
.
0
0
2
1
.
0
0
4
5
.
0
0
3
.
5
0
3
.
2
0
21
4
5
n
o
‐‐
48
.
0
0
3
7
.
0
0
1
4
0
.
0
0
140 NA no ‐‐
0.
0
4
0
.
0
4
0.
0
4
0.0
3
6
0
.
0
4
4
n
o
‐‐
NA NA ‐‐ ‐‐
0.
0
4
NA
0
.
0
4
2
‐‐
‐
‐
0.4
2
0
.
5
1
0.51 NA yes ‐‐
0.0
1
0.0
3
0.
1
0
0.
0
3
0
.
1
n
o
‐‐
0.2
5
0
.
0
6
0.25 NA yes ‐‐
TT
in
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
l
y
la
b
e
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th
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An
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d
Ma
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8 fr
o
m
TT
‐
Se
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
of
CO
P
C
s
Pa
g
e
5 of
18
7/3/2014
Fie
l
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p
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Un
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(u
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c
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y
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C
h
l
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r
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7
c
s
l
‐A In
d
o
o
r
Air
‐B In
d
o
o
r
Air
‐Su
b
‐Sla
b
1
‐Su
b
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b
2
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d
o
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r
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‐B In
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o
o
r
Air
‐Su
b
‐Sla
b
1
Su
b
‐Sla
b
1
2
I
2
I
2
I
2
I
2M
I 2
I
2
I
2
I
2
I
A In
d
o
o
r
Air
07
/
2
3
/
2
0
1
3
‐B In
d
o
o
r
Air
07
/
2
3
/
2
0
1
3
‐Su
b
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b
1 09
/
0
5
/
2
0
1
3
‐Su
b
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b
2 09
/
0
5
/
2
0
1
3
In
d
o
o
r
Air
Ma
x
(e
x
c
l
u
d
i
n
g
cra
w
l
s
p ac
e
)
Su
b
s
l
a
b
Ma
x
Ma
x
IA
>
RS
L
?
If
Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
‐A In
d
o
o
r
Air
12
/
1
2
/
2
0
1
3
‐B In
d
o
o
r
Air
12
/
1
2
/
2
0
1
3
‐Su
b
‐Sla
b
1 08
/
2
7
/
2
0
1
3
‐Su
b
‐Sla
b
1 12
/
1
1
/
2
0
1
3
In
d
o
o
r
Air
Ma
x
(e
x
c
l
u
d
i
n
g
cr
a
w
l
s
p ac
e
)
Su
b
s
l
a
b
Ma
x
Ma
x
IA >
RS
L
?
If Max IA > RSL … then Max SS > Max
In
d
o
o
r
Air
I
n
d
o
o
r
Ai
r
S
u
b
‐Sl
a
b
S
u
b
‐Sla
b
In
d
o
o
r
Air
I
n
d
o
o
r
Ai
r
S
u
b
‐Sl
a
b
S
u
b
‐Sla
b
Ma
i
n
Flo
o
r
Fa
m
i
l
y
Ro
o
m
Ba
s
e
m
e
n
t
Fa
m
i
l
y
Ro
o
m
Ba
s
e
m
e
n
t
Su
b
‐
Sla
b
Ba
s
e
m
e
n
t
Su
b
‐
Sla
b
Ma
i
n
Flo
o
r
Li
v
i
n
g
Ro
o
m
Ba
s
e
m
e
n
t
S
u
b
‐Sla
b
S
u
b
‐Sla
b
7/
2
3
/
2
0
1
3
7
/
2
3
/
2
0
1
3
9
/
5
/
2
0
1
3
9
/
5
/
2
0
1
3
12
/
1
2
/
2
0
1
3
1
2
/
1
2
/
2
0
1
3
8
/
2
7
/
2
0
1
3
1
2
/
1
1
/
2
0
1
3
0.0
6
0
.
2
2
0
.
0
8
0
.
0
9
0.
2
2
0
.
0
9
n
o
‐‐
0.0
7
0
.
0
4
0
.
0
4
0
.
0
7
0.0
7
1
0
.
0
6
5
n
o
‐‐
0.0
1
0
.
0
1
0.
0
1
N
A
n
o
‐‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
1.4
0
2
.
0
0
4
.
0
0
4
.
3
0
2
4
.
3
ye
s
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s
2.1
0
1
.
0
0
3
.
6
0
2
.
3
0
2.1
3
.
6
ye
s
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e
s
0.5
3
0
.
2
1
0
.
0
6
0
.
0
4
0.
5
3
0
.
0
5
6
ye
s
no
N
A
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
0.3
6
0
.
3
3
0.
3
6
N
A
n
o
‐‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
1.6
0
2
.
0
0
4
.
3
0
5
.
9
0
2
5
.
9
n
o
‐‐
9.8
0
1
.
9
0
5
.
8
0
1
.
5
0
9.8
5
.
8
n
o
‐‐
0.3
2
0
.
4
1
0.
4
1
N
A
n
o
‐‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
1.6
0
2
.
7
0
1
.
7
0
2
.
0
0
2.7
2
n
o
‐‐
15
.
0
0
2
.
5
0
1
9
.
0
0
3
.
7
0
15
1
9
n
o
‐‐
0.2
9
0
.
2
6
0.
2
9
N
A
n
o
‐‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
19
.
0
0
3
2
.
0
0
1
5
.
0
0
2
2
.
0
0
32
2
2
n
o
‐‐
80
.
0
0
8
.
1
0
3
8
.
0
0
6
.
0
0
80
3
8
n
o
‐‐
0.9
5
2
.
3
0
2
.
2
0
2
.
2
0
2.3
2
.
2
ye
s
no
6.0
0
1
.
0
0
1
.
2
0
6
1
.
2
ye
s
no
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
0.
6
0
0
.
6
6
NA
0
.
6
6
‐‐
‐
‐
0.
4
1
NA
0
.
4
1
‐‐
‐
‐
0.5
5
0
.
3
4
0
.
4
6
0
.
4
4
0.
5
5
0
.
4
6
ye
s
no
0.6
8
0
.
6
0
0.6
8
N
A
ye
s
‐‐
0.
2
3
0
.
2
2
NA
0
.
2
3
‐‐
‐
‐
0.1
1
NA
0
.
1
1
‐‐
‐
‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
0.2
5
0
.
6
6
0.
6
6
N
A
ye
s
‐‐
0.4
9
0
.
2
3
1
.
8
0
0
.
3
5
0.4
9
1
.
8
ye
s
y
e
s
1.4
0
1
.
6
0
0
.
4
9
0
.
3
6
1.6
0
.
4
9
n
o
‐‐
11
.
0
0
1
.
8
0
11
N
A
ye
s
‐‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
1.
8
0
1
.
6
0
NA
1
.
8
‐‐
‐
‐
3.
0
0
0
.
2
2
NA
3
‐‐
‐
‐
0.2
3
0
.
8
4
0
.
2
6
0
.
3
3
0.
8
4
0
.
3
3
n
o
‐‐
0.9
4
1
.
1
0
0
.
3
8
0
.
1
4
1.1
0
.
3
8
n
o
‐‐
0.9
3
1
.
7
0
2
.
0
0
2
.
0
0
1.7
2
ye
s
y
e
s
2.0
0
0
.
6
5
1
.
9
0
0
.
6
7
2
1
.
9
ye
s
no
1.5
0
1
.
4
0
1
.
2
0
1
.
1
0
1.5
1
.
2
n
o
‐‐
1.9
0
2
.
0
0
1
.
4
0
1
.
4
0
2
1
.
4
n
o
‐‐
0.5
9
0
.
3
7
0
.
5
2
0.
5
9
0
.
5
2
n
o
‐‐
0.6
3
0
.
5
3
0
.
4
6
0
.
4
8
0.6
3
0
.
4
8
n
o
‐‐
2.6
0
2
.
8
0
2
.
7
0
2
.
9
0
2.8
2
.
9
n
o
‐‐
2.5
0
2
.
3
0
2
.
3
0
2
.
6
0
2.5
2
.
6
n
o
‐‐
0.8
8
3
.
5
0
0
.
6
1
0
.
5
3
3.5
0
.
6
1
n
o
‐‐
2.5
0
1
.
1
0
1
.
1
0
0
.
4
2
2.5
1
.
1
n
o
‐‐
2.6
0
2
.
0
0
2
.
1
0
2.6
2
.
1
n
o
‐‐
1.5
0
1.5
N
A
n
o
‐‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
0.0
2
0
.
0
3
0.0
3
0.0
2
8
0
.
0
2
7
n
o
‐‐
3.5
0
6
.
6
0
7
.
6
0
7
.
6
0
6.6
7
.
6
n
o
‐‐
6.8
0
2
.
1
0
6
.
4
0
2
.
2
0
6.8
6
.
4
n
o
‐‐
1.2
0
2
.
2
0
2
.
6
0
2
.
8
0
2.2
2
.
8
n
o
‐‐
1.6
0
0
.
8
2
2
.
6
0
0
.
9
8
1.6
2
.
6
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Max IA > RSL?If Max IA > RSL … then Max SS > Max
In
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yes no
NA
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8 fr
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TT
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Se
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c
t
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n
of
CO
P
C
s
Pa
g
e
10
of
18
7/3/2014
Fie
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N
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Un
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7/3/2014
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b
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Da
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8 fr
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TT
‐
Se
l
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c
t
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n
of
CO
P
C
s
Pa
g
e
12
of
18
7/3/2014
Fie
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d
o
o
r
Air
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x
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x
c
l
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d
i
n
g
cr
a
w
l
s
p ac
e
)
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b
s
l
a
b
Ma
x
Ma
x
IA
>
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L
?
If Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
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In
d
o
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r
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0
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3
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1
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In
d
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x
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x
c
l
u
d
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n
g
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a
w
l
s
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e
)
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b
s
l
a
b
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x
Ma
x
IA
>
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L
?
If
Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
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x
In
d
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r
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n
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n
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n
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13
of
18
7/3/2014
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In
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…
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n
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RS
L
?
If
Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
In
d
o
o
r
Ai
r
I
n
d
o
o
r
Air
S
u
b
‐Sla
b
In
d
o
o
r
Ai
r
I
n
d
o
o
r
Air
I
n
d
o
o
r
Air
S
u
b
‐Sla
b
Ma
i
n
Flo
o
r
Din
i
n
g
Ro
o
m
Ba
s
e
m
e
n
t
Fa
m
i
l
y
Ro
o
m
Ba
s
e
m
e
n
t
Su
b
‐
Sla
b
Ba
s
e
m
e
n
t
Be
d
r
o
o
m
Ma
i
n
Flo
o
r
Ki
t
c
h
e
n
Se
c
o
n
d
Flo
o
r
Be
d
r
o
o
m
Su
b
‐Sla
b
7/
9
/
2
0
1
3
7
/
9
/
2
0
1
3
8
/
2
7
/
2
0
1
3
8/
2
4
/
2
0
1
3
8
/
2
4
/
2
0
1
3
8
/
2
4
/
2
0
1
3
8
/
2
3
/
2
0
1
3
0.
0
4
0
.
0
3
0.
0
3
7
N
A
n
o
‐‐
0.0
6
0
.
0
9
0
.
0
5
0
.
0
5
0.
0
9
4
0
.
0
5
n
o
‐‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
2.
8
0
2
.
8
0
2.
8
N
A
ye
s
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1.2
0
0
.
8
1
0
.
6
4
7
.
6
0
1.
2
7
.
6
ye
s
y
e
s
5.
3
0
3
.
9
0
0
.
8
5
5.
3
0
.
8
5
ye
s
no
0.
1
9
0
.
1
5
0.1
9
N
A
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s
‐‐
NA
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A
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‐
‐
1.2
0
1
.
3
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0
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5
3
0
.
5
8
1.
3
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5
8
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s
no
7.
7
0
5
.
9
0
2
6
.
0
0
7.
7
2
6
n
o
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8.9
0
4
.
5
0
4
.
2
0
6
.
0
0
8.
9
6
n
o
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3
0
0
.
7
4
1.
3
N
A
n
o
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0.3
2
0
.
5
8
0.3
2
0
.
5
8
n
o
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41
.
0
0
2
4
.
0
0
41
N
A
n
o
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4.7
0
1
6
.
0
0
5
.
9
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1
3
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0
0
16
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3
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o
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4
0
1
.
0
0
1.
4
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A
n
o
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0.3
4
0
.
4
4
0.3
4
0
.
4
4
n
o
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.
0
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3
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0
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1
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o
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0
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0
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1
.
0
0
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3
1
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o
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2
0
2
.
5
0
2.
5
N
A
ye
s
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0.4
9
0
.
4
6
0
.
4
2
0
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9
8
0.4
9
0
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9
8
ye
s
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s
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A
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‐
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A
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2
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o
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0
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5
3
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‐
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0.
4
9
0
.
4
7
0.4
9
N
A
ye
s
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‐‐
‐
‐
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N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
NA
N
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‐‐
‐
‐
NA
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‐‐
‐
‐
0.5
4
0.5
4
N
A
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o
‐‐
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s
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7
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4
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7
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.
4
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NA
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A
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NA
N
A
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‐
‐
0.7
2
NA
0
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7
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‐‐
‐
‐
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A
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4
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1
.
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6
6
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6
6
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o
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4
7
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2
6
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1
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2
6
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o
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8
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1
.
9
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1
.
5
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8
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.
5
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s
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4
0
.
2
4
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1
8
3
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5
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o
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4
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4
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6
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5
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3
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A
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.
4
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7
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4
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3
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o
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7
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6
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5
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7
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5
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7
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7
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3
0
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6
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A
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o
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9.7
0
3
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1
0
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8
0
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7
N
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o
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A
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‐
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0.
0
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0
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o
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1
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1
1
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6
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5
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9
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5
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7
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6
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o
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‐
‐
0.0
6
NA
0
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0
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‐‐
‐
‐
Ri
s
k
An
a
l
y
s
i
s
Da
t
a
b
a
s
e
Re
c
'
d
Ma
y
8 fr
o
m
TT
‐
Se
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
of
CO
P
C
s
Pa
g
e
14
of
18
7/3/2014
Fie
l
d
S
a
m
p
N
o
Ho
u
s
e
N
o
Un
i
q
u
e
I
D
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m
p
l
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T
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p
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Du
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c
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t
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s
c
r
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p
RS
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s
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d
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n
t
i
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l
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r
(u
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m
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)
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a
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c
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c
s
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y
l
C
h
l
o
r
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7
c
s
l
‐A
In
d
o
o
r
Air
‐B
In
d
o
o
r
Air
‐Su
b
‐
Sla
b
1
‐A
In
d
o
o
r
Ai
r
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In
d
o
o
r
Air
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In
d
o
o
r
Air
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b
‐
Sla
b
1
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In
d
o
o
r
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/
0
3
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2
0
1
3
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In
d
o
o
r
Air
07
/
0
3
/
2
0
1
3
‐Su
b
‐
Sla
b
1
08
/
2
1
/
2
0
1
3
In
d
o
o
r
Air
Ma
x
(e
x
c
l
u
d
i
n
g
cr
a
w
l
s
p ac
e
)
Su
b
s
l
a
b
Ma
x
Ma
x
IA
>
RS
L
?
If
Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
‐A
In
d
o
o
r
Air
07
/
1
1
/
2
0
1
3
‐B
In
d
o
o
r
Air
07
/
1
1
/
2
0
1
3
‐C
In
d
o
o
r
Air
07
/
1
1
/
2
0
1
3
‐Su
b
‐
Sla
b
1
08
/
2
6
/
2
0
1
3
In
d
o
o
r
Air
Ma
x
(e
x
c
l
u
d
i
n
g
cr
a
w
l
s
p ac
e
)
Su
b
s
l
a
b
Ma
x
Ma
x
IA
>
RS
L
?
If
Ma
x
IA
> RS
L
…
th
e
n
Ma
x
SS
> Ma
x
In
d
o
o
r
Ai
r
I
n
d
o
o
r
Air
S
u
b
‐Sla
b
In
d
o
o
r
Ai
r
I
n
d
o
o
r
Air
I
n
d
o
o
r
Air
S
u
b
‐Sla
b
Ma
i
n
Flo
o
r
Liv
i
n
g
Ro
o
m
Se
c
o
n
d
Flo
o
r
Off
i
c
e
Su
b
‐Sla
b
Ma
i
n
Flo
o
r
Liv
i
n
g
Ro
o
m
Se
c
o
n
d
Flo
o
r
Be
d
r
o
o
m
Ba
s
e
m
e
n
t
Fa
m
i
l
y
Ro
o
m
Ba
s
e
m
e
n
t
Su
b
‐
Sla
b
7/
3
/
2
0
1
3
7
/
3
/
2
0
1
3
8
/
2
1
/
2
0
1
3
7/
1
1
/
2
0
1
3
7
/
1
1
/
2
0
1
3
7
/
1
1
/
2
0
1
3
8
/
2
6
/
2
0
1
3
0.0
8
NA
0
.
0
7
8
‐‐
‐
‐
0.0
3
0
.
0
2
0
.
0
3
0
.
0
3
0.
0
2
9
0
.
0
2
9
n
o
‐‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
NA
N
A
‐‐
‐
‐
52
.
0
0
4
8
.
0
0
7
.
7
0
52
7
.
7
ye
s
no
6.7
0
1
5
.
0
0
6
.
3
0
1
6
.
0
0
15
1
6
ye
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7/3/2014
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7/3/2014
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11
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30
.
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‐‐
APPENDIX C – AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY
PAUL C. CHROSTOWSKI, Ph.D., QEP CPF Associates, Inc. 7708 Takoma Ave.
Takoma Park, MD 20912 301-585-8062 pc@cpfassociates.com www.cpfassociates.com EDUCATION
Ph.D. Environmental Engineering and Science, Drexel University Philadelphia, PA (1981).
M.S. Environmental Science, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA (Environmental Chemistry and Health Specializations, USPHS Traineeship) (1979).
B.S. Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California (American Chemical Society Certified, Honors) (1976).
Continuing professional education in environmental engineering, fate and transport modeling, toxicology, and environmental forensics. PROFESSIONAL CERTIFICATION Dr. Chrostowski is a registered Qualified Environmental Professional (QEP) (#02970014)
AWARDS/RECOGNITION Recipient of 2003 Linn Enslow Memorial Award by NYWEA. Recognized for 30 years of service to ACS Environmental Division.
OVERVIEW OF EXPERIENCE Dr. Chrostowski is a founding member of Chrostowski, Pearsall, & Foster (CPF Associates, Inc). He is an environmental chemist, health scientist, and engineer with over 40 years experience in environmental work on behalf of both government and private clients.
Currently, Dr. Chrostowski’s practice is focused on environmental chemistry, environmental engineering, and risk analysis. Previously, he was Director of Environment, Health & Safety programs at The Weinberg Group, Vice President and Senior Science Advisor at
ICF/Clement, Senior Scientist at EA Engineering, Science & Technology, Assistant Professor at Vassar College, a consultant in private practice and a pollution control/industrial hygiene technician in industry. Dr. Chrostowski performed pioneering work in the fields of
chemical environmental forensics and risk assessment. He has specialized experience in the scientific and technical aspects of federal, state, and international regulatory programs including the environmental impacts of residuals management technologies and environmental impact assessment methodologies. In addition to EPA and OSHA programs, Dr. Chrostowski has developed expertise in human, ecological, and probabilistic risk
assessment, life cycle analysis, application of multivariate statistics, and failure analysis. Dr. Chrostowski’s research interests include the environmental behavior of complex mixtures,
application of quantitative management tools to environmental strategy development and evaluation, chemometrics, quantitative ecology, biomonitoring, and environmental modeling. Dr. Chrostowski is active in numerous professional societies and expert panels and has authored or co-authored over 130 publications or presentations in the environmental field. In addition to his technical work, Dr. Chrostowski has taught university-level environmental sciences and has presented expert testimony in litigation cases, regulatory, legislative, and permitting hearings and public meetings. EMPLOYMENT HISTORY 1999-present President, CPF Associates, Inc.
1993-1999 Director, Environment, Safety & Health practice, The Weinberg Group Inc. 1985-1993 Vice President and Senior Science Advisor, Clement Division of
ICF/Kaiser 1984-1985 Senior Scientist, EA Engineering, Science & Technology 1981-1984 Assistant Professor, Vassar College
1979-1984 Consulting scientist in private practice 1976 Information Analyst, Solar Energy Information Center 1974-1976 Research technician, University of California 1970-1972 Laboratory/industrial hygiene technician, C&D Batteries 1968-1970 Laboratory/pollution control technician, Jack Frost Sugar 1964-1968 Petty Officer, 2nd Class, U.S. Navy SELECTED PROFESSIONAL SOCIETY MEMBERSHIPS Air and Waste Management Association American Council of Governmental Industrial Hygienists American Chemical Society American Chemical Society Environmental Division International Society for Environmental Forensics
International Society for Exposure Analysis PUBLICATIONS
Dr. Chrostowski is the author or co-author of over 130 publications or presentations. A full bibliography and copies of publications are available on request. Selected publications/presentations include: Durda, J. and Chrostowski, P .C. 1991. Integration of ecological risk assessment and biological assessment in risk management: The Aberdeen experience. Paper presented at 12th Annual Meeting of the Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry, November 3- 7, Seattle, Washington. Chrostowski, P .C. and Durda, J. 1991. Effects of air pollution on the desert tortoise: An ecological risk assessment. Paper presented at 12th Annual Meeting of the Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry, November 3- 7, Seattle, Washington.
Chrostowski, P.C.,Foster, S.A.,Durda, J.L., Preziosi, D. V. 1998. Good Ecological Risk Assessment Practices. SETAC Annual Meeting, Charlotte, NC, November 1998.
Preziosi, D., Durda, J., Chrostowski, P. 2000. Conceptual approaches for addressing
temporal and spatial scales of wading bird populations and contaminant distribution. SETAC Annual Meeting.
Foster, S.A., Chrostowski, P.C., Preziosi, D.V. 2003. A Comparison of Two Mercury Environmental Fate and Transport Models in Evaluating Incinerator Emissions. 2003 Incineration Conference. Orlando, FL May 12-16.
Chrostowski, P.C. & Foster, S.A. 2004. Swimming Pool Shock Treatment. Environ Health 66:26-27.
Langmuir,D., Chrostowski, P., Vigneault, B., and Chaney, R. 2004. Issue Paper on the Environmental Chemistry of Metals. Prepared for USEPA Risk Assessment Forum,
Foster, S. Chrostowski, P.C., Pirages, S., Nealley M. 2006. Applications of the IEM-2M Mercury Fate and Transport Model in Hazardous Waste Combustion Facility Risk
Assessment. 2006 Waste Management Meeting. AWMA and USEPA, Arlington, VA.
Chrostowski, P.C. & Foster, S.A.2006. Modeling exposure and risk from chemical weapons releases. Society for Risk Analysis Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD.
Foster, S.A., Chrostowski, P.C. & Wilsey, S. 2006. The role of landfill gas emission rate calculation methods in solid waste landfill risk assessments. SRA Annual Meeting,
Foster, S.A. & Chrostowski, P.C. 2008. Comprehensive human health and ecological risk assessment of a carbon reactivation facility. SRA Annual Meeting, Boston MA.
Chrostowski, P.C. 2008. Hill’s Postulates. In Jorgensen, SE & Fath, BD (Eds) Ecotoxicology. Vol 3 of Encyclopedia of Ecology, pp. 1858-1863. Oxford: Elsevier Foster, C., Richer, P., Lynch, G., Chrostowski, P., Hoffman, B. and Militana, L. 2008. PM2.5 Ambient Air Monitoring at a Regional Solid Waste Processing and Transfer Facility. Global Waste Management Symposium, Copper Mountain, CO. September 2008.
Foster, S.A., Chrostowski, P.C., and Porter, T.J. 2011. Ultrafine Particles in Combustion Source Emissions. 2011 Annual Society of Risk Analysis Meeting, Charleston, SC (December).
Foster, S. and Chrostowski, P.C. 2012. Human Health and Ecological Impact Analysis for a
New Renewable Energy Facility in Florida. WTERT 2012 Bi-Annual Conference. October 18-19, 2012. Columbia University, NY.
Chrostowski, P.C. and Foster, S. 2014. Resolution of a Controversey – Do Waste-to-Energy Plants Cause Public Health Impacts. 29th ISWA Conference.
COMMUNITY PROFESSIONAL SERVICE Montgomery County MD Energy and Air Quality Advisory Committee
Takoma Park - Montgomery College Neighbors Advisory Committee Science Fair judge for environmental science projects, Montgomery County, MD Takoma Park Community Center Citizen’s Advisory Committee Takoma Park Committee on the Environment